Asia Minor under the Romans

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Antiochos III

The Romans claimed Greece, Macedonia, Syria and Asia Minor after the Macedonian Wars (214–148 B.C.). The defeat of the Carthaginians gave Rome almost complete control of the Mediterranean. Romans conquered most of Asia Minor in 188 B.C., Syria and Palestine in 64 and 63 B.C. In 63 B.C. , Pompey the Great of Rome defeated the king of Pontus, Mithridates VI Eupator, who controlled lands in what is now Turkey. The death of Mithridates allowed Rome to gain a strong foothold in the eastern Mediterranean and to expand in the region. By the time Caesar became emperor, the Roman Empire had expanded about halfway across Asia Minor and Syria after a series of victories against former Greek colonies and small Middle Eastern kingdoms.

Asiatic Provinces In Asia Minor (Anatolia, modern Turkey)
Asia proper (western Turkey133 B.C.).
Bithynia et Pontus (northern Turkey, south of the Black Sea, 74, 65 B.C.).
Cilicia (southeast coast of Turkey, 67 B.C.).
Galatia (central Turkey, 25 B.C.).
Pamphylia et Lycia (southwest Turkey, 25, A.D. 43).
Cappadocia (eastern Turkey, A.D. 17).

The Roman province of Asia or Asiana, in Byzantine times called Phrygia, was a Senatorial province governed by a proconsul added to the late Republic. The word "Asia" comes from a Greek word. Originally it only applied to the eastern shore of the Aegean Sea. The Roman province of Asia occupied almost exactly the area of that Lydian kingdom.(the northwestern part of what is today Turkey). Later, the word was applied to a vague area in, finally becoming east of them, until it was used generically for the whole continent. [Source: Wikipedia +]

Antiochus III the Great had to give up Asia when the Romans crushed his army at the historic battle of Magnesia, in 190 B.C. After the Treaty of Apamea (188 B.C.) the entire territory was surrendered to Rome and placed under the control of a client king at Pergamum. With no apparent heir, Attalus III of Pergamum having been a close ally of Rome, chose to bequeath his kingdom to Rome.

Asia province originally consisted of Mysia, the Troad, Aeolis, Lydia, Ionia, Caria, and the land corridor through Pisidia to Pamphylia. Aegean islands except Crete, were part of the Insulae (province) of Asiana. Part of Phrygia was given to Mithridates V Euergetes before it was reclaimed as part of the province in 116 B.C. Lycaonia was added before 100 B.C. while the area around Cibyra was added in 82 B.C. The southeast region of Asia province was later reassigned to the province of Cilicia. During, the empire, Asia province was bounded by Bithynia to the north, Lycia to the south, and Galatia to the east. +

Bithynia was ancient district in northwestern Anatolia, adjoining the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, and the Black Sea, and thus was a strategically important and precarious place. position between East and West. Late in the 2nd millennium B.C., Bithynia was occupied by warlike tribes of Thracian origin who harried Greek settlers and Persian envoys alike. Their remarkable pugnacity kept them from complete Persian domination after the 6th century; in addition, they never submitted to Alexander the Great or his Seleucid successors. By the 3rd century B.C. the small but powerful state had evolved from tribal government to Hellenistic kingship and reached the height of its power early in the 2nd century B.C.. This was followed by a century of inept leadership and rapid decline. Bithynia’s last king, Nicomedes IV, little more than a Roman puppet, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans in 74 B.C. [Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica]

Websites on Ancient Rome: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Rome sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Late Antiquity sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; BBC Ancient Rome bbc.co.uk/history; Perseus Project - Tufts University; perseus.tufts.edu ; Lacus Curtius penelope.uchicago.edu; The Internet Classics Archive classics.mit.edu ; Bryn Mawr Classical Review bmcr.brynmawr.edu; Cambridge Classics External Gateway to Humanities Resources web.archive.org; Ancient Rome resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library web.archive.org ; History of ancient Rome OpenCourseWare from the University of Notre Dame web.archive.org ; United Nations of Roma Victrix (UNRV) History unrv.com

Romans Defeat the Seleucid Empire and Claim Asia Minor

After the defeats of Carthage in the Punic Wars (264 – 146 B.C.) and Macedonia (one of heirs to Alexander the Great’s kingdom) in the Macedonian Wars (214–148 B.C.), there was only one great power in Mediterranean which could claim to be a rival of Rome. That power was Syria, under its ambitious ruler, Antiochus III, 6th ruler of the Seleucid Empire (another heir to Alexander the Great’s kingdom). David Silverman of Reed College wrote: “A number of things led to the conflict between Rome and this great power in Asia. Rome and Flamininus did not deal so well with Antiochus on the diplomatic plane; he wanted the Romans to define the limits of his sphere of influence in Thrace, but they were unwilling or unable to do so. The senatorial treaty of 196 B.C. (ratifying the decision of Flamininus) had carried a not-so-subtle warning to Antiochus: all the Greeks states were to be free, without tribute or garrison, both in Europe and in Asia. [Source: David Silverman, Classics 373 ~ History 393 Class, Reed College ^*^]

A series of naval battles saw the Romans temporarily in command of the seas. Meanwhile a Roman army was marching across Thrace. Its commander was officially L. Scipio, but at his side was his elder brother P. Scipio Africanus, calling the shots. Antiochus tried to negotiate, but the price demanded by the Romans, that he give up most of the Seleucid empire, was too high. The next year the Romans followed him, and fought their first battle upon the continent of Asia. The Roman army was nominally under the command of the new consul, L. Cornelius Scipio, but really under the command of his famous brother, Scipio Africanus, who accompanied him. The decisive battle was fought at Magnesia (190 B.C.), not far from Sardis in western Asia Minor. Forty thousand of the enemy were slain, with a comparatively small loss to the Romans. [Source: David Silverman, Classics 373 ~ History 393 Class, Reed College]

At the battle at Magnesia in 190 B.C., the Roman forces were outnumbered over 2 to 1, but despite heavy losses on their left flank to the Persian cavalry the Roman legions made short work of the Syrians in the center and the affair ended in Rome's favor. Had the settlement rested with the Scipios, Antiochus would have been left as a major power in the region and, incidentally, a stabilizing force. But the absence of the Scipios from Rome had exposed them to political attack, and their replacements in Asia Minor imposed such harsh terms upon Antiochus that a power vacuum was created in the Middle East.

Scipio imposed the terms of peace, which required Antiochus: 1) to give up all his possessions in Asia Minor—the most of which were added to the kingdom of Pergamum, with some territory to the republic of Rhodes; 2) to give up his fleet and not to interfere in European affairs; 3) to pay the sum of 15,000 talents (nearly $20,000,000) within twelve years; and 4) to surrender Hannibal, who had taken an active part in the war. [Source: “Outlines of Roman History” by William C. Morey, Ph.D., D.C.L. New York, American Book Company (1901) \~]

Silverman wrote: “The terms barred Antiochus from military activity west of the Taurus mountain range, effectively ejecting him from most of Turkey. Again, Gruen's method is to divine the original motive from the outcome; after Antiochus was defeated, the Romans parceled out his land between the Rhodians and Eumenes of Pergamum. Rhodes' tenure was destined to be short, however. In the years 169-167 a revolution at Rhodes brought an anti-Roman party to power, and even though the Rhodians tried to make amends after Roman supremacy was demonstrated yet again at Pydna, it was too late. [Source: David Silverman, Classics 373 ~ History 393 Class, Reed College ^*^]

Caesar in Asia Minor

On his way back to Italy Caesar passed through Asia Minor. Here he found Pharnaces, the son of the great Mithridates, stirring up a revolt in Pontus. At the battle of Zela (47 B.C.) he destroyed the armies of this prince, and restored the Asiatic provinces, recording his speedy victory in the famous words,“Veni, vidi, vici” ( I came, I saw, I conquered). [Source: “Outlines of Roman History” by William C. Morey, Ph.D., D.C.L. New York, American Book Company (1901) \~]

Suetonius wrote: “ From Alexandria he crossed to Syria, and from there went to Pontus, spurred on by the news that Pharnaces, son of Mithridates the Great, had taken advantage of the situation to make war, and was already flushed with numerous successes; but Caesar vanquished him in a single battle within five days after his arrival and four hours after getting sight of him, often remarking on Pompeius' good luck in gaining his principal fame as a general by victories over such feeble foemen.”

Caesar's route in the Middle East

Plutarch wrote in “Lives”: “Thence he passed to Asia, where he heard that Domitius was beaten by Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, and had fled out of Pontus with a handful of men; and that Pharnaces pursued the victory so eagerly, that though he was already master of Bithynia and Cappadocia, he had a further design of attempting the Lesser Armenia, and was inviting all the kings and tetrarchs there to rise. Cæsar immediately marched against him with three legions, fought him near Zela, drove him out of Pontus, and totally defeated his army. When he gave Amantius, a friend of his at Rome, an account of this action, to express the promptness and rapidity of it, he used three words, I came, saw, and conquered, which in Latin, having all the same cadence, carry with them a very suitable air of brevity. [Source: Plutarch (A.D. c.46-c.120), Life of Caesar (100-44 B.C.), written A.D. 75, translated by John Dryden, MIT]

“Hence he crossed into Italy, and came to Rome at the end of that year, for which he had been a second time chosen dictator, though that office had never before lasted a whole year, and was elected consul for the next. He was ill spoken of, because upon a mutiny of some soldiers, who killed Cosconius and Galba, who had been prætors, he gave them only the slight reprimand of calling them Citizens, instead of Fellow-Soldiers, and afterwards assigned to each man a thousand drachmas, besides a share of lands in Italy. He was also reflected on for Dolabella’s extravagance, Amantius’s covetousness, Antony’s debauchery, and Corfinius’s profuseness, who pulled down Pompey’s house, and rebuilt it, as not magnificent enough; for the Romans were much displeased with all these. But Cæsar, for the prosecution of his own scheme of government, though he knew their characters and disapproved them, was forced to make use of those who would serve him.”

Pliny the Younger as an Administrator for Trajan in Asia Minor

Bithynia was Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). William Stearns Davis wrote: “About 112 CE. Trajan appointed Pliny the Younger, a distinguished Senator and literary man, as governor of Bithynia — a province suffering from previous maladministration. The nature of the governor's problems and the obligation he was under of referring very petty matters to the Emperor appears clearly in the following letters. This correspondence of Trajan and Pliny (given here only in small part) is among the most valuable bits of historical data we have for the whole Imperial Age.

Pliny the Younger: Letters, X.25 ff: The Correspondence of a Provincial Governor and the Emperor Trajan: Pliny to Trajan: “The people of Prusa, Sire, have a public bath in a neglected and dilapidated state. They wish - with your kind permission — to restore it; but I think a new one ought to be built, and I reckon you can safely comply with their wishes. [Then the governor names various ways to find the money, especially cutting down the free distribution of oil.]” [Source: Pliny the Younger (61/62-113 A.D.) and Trajan (r.98-117 A.D.): Letters, Book X. 25ff : The Correspondence of a Provincial Governor and the Emperor Trajan, c. 112 A.D. William Stearns Davis, ed., “Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources,” 2 Vols. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912-13), Vol. II: Rome and the West, 196-210, 215-222, 250-251, 289-290, 295-296, 298-300]

Pliny the Younger

Trajan to Pliny: “If the building of a new bath will not cripple the finances of Prusa, we can indulge their wishes; only it must be understood that no new taxes are to be raised to meet the cost, and that their contributions for necessary expenses shall not show any falling off.”

Pliny to Trajan: “A desolating fire broke out in Nicomedia, and destroyed a number of private houses, and two public buildings — the almshouse and the temple of Isis — although a road ran between them. The fire was allowed to spread farther than it need, first owing to the violent wind; second, to the laziness of the citizens, it being generally agreed they stood idly by without moving, and simply watched the conflagration. Besides there was not a single public fire engine or bucket in the place, and not one solitary appliance for mastering a fire. However, these will be provided upon orders I have already given. But, Sire, I would have you consider whether you think a fire company of about 150 men ought not to be formed? I will take care that no one not a genuine fireman shall be admitted, and that the guild should not misapply the charter granted it. Again there would be no trouble in keeping an eye on so small a body.”

Trajan to Pliny: “You have formed the idea of a possible fire company at Nicomedia on the model of various others already existing; but remember that the province of Bithynia, and especially city-states like Nicomedia, are the prey of factions. Give them the name we may, and however good be the reasons for organization, such associations will soon degenerate into dangerous secret societies. It is better policy to provide fire apparatus, and to encourage property holders to make use of them, and if need comes, press the crowd which collects into the same service.”

Roman Sites in Asia Minor (Turkey)

Asia Minor is a Roman used to describe what is now Turkey. Most of Turkey sits upon a large peninsula between the the Black and Mediterranean Seas called Anatolia (a Greek name meaning “sunrise”). Before Istanbul was Constantinople it was Byzantium a Greco-Roman city. The Hippodrome there was built in 330 B.C. and was the largest stadium in the ancient world. Horse races and gladiator vs. animal battles were held in front crowds so rowdy they make British soccer hooligans look like saints. During one event in A.D 532 that turned into an angry political rally against Emperor Justinian, the Byzantine army massacred 30,000 people. All sporting events were cancelled for a few years after that but when they resumed, chariot races continued for another 500 years. Only a column remains from the Hippodrome. Other Greco-Roman monuments include the Column of Constantine, whose bronze covering was looted by the Crusaders in the 11th century; and the Serpentine column, originally erected in Delphi to commemorate Alexander the Great's victory over the Persians. Remains of one of the curved sections of the Hippodrome wall can be seen on the Aya Sofia side of the three monuments.

Çekirge (about four miles from downtown Bursa, about a 100 kilometers from Istanbul) has been known since Roman times for its warm, mineral rich springs. Eski Kaplica, the Turkish bath oldest, was built on the site a Roman bath. Further to the south, Romans arrived in the Pamukkale area in the first century B.C. and they were so impressed by the spectacular travertines they built a resort here that later grew into the city of Heirapolis. In the Pamukkale Hotel’s courtyard is a marvelous swimming pool with steaming hot water and Roman columns and friezes actually in the water.

Antalya is the south of Turkey is the home of Hadrian's Gate, a passageway through a second century A.D. Roman wall. Side (50 miles east of Antalya) is where Hannibal lost his fleet to Rhodes, a former Roman ally, in 190 B.C. The temples, Roman baths, basilicas, a large amphitheater and aqueduct are well preserved. Off the coast of Alanya, in 67 B.C., the Cilician pirate armada was defeated by the Romans and a few decades later Cleopatra chopped down all the cedar trees on the hills to build her fleet after Marc Antony gave her the city.

Cappadocia is a Roman name and it describes a 50 square mile area in Turkey's rolling Anatolian plateau roughly by a triangle form by the towns of Avanos to the north, Nevsehir to the west and Urgup to east, with Goreme roughly in the middle. The home of some of the world’s first Christian communities, it is a wonderful place to explore, hike, scramble and climb around. Try to time your outing to avoid the heat or cold. The area is also known for it carpets, ceramics and bad wine.

Antakya (near Syria) was the fabled Biblical port of Antioch, which was also the third most important city in Roman times after Rome and Alexandria. St. Peter founded one of the first Christian communities here and the grotto where he preached is located right outside the city.

Among the sights in Antakya are a Roman bridge, an aqueducts and the Church of Saint Peter. The Hatay Archeological Museum is the most interesting tourist sight in Antakya, with an impressive collection of Roman mosaics. More than 100 mosaics are on display. Some depict everyday Roman life and scenes from mythology. Others feature geometric designs or natural patterns. The human figures have flesh tones, shading and musculature made with a wide variety of pebbles gathered from the sea and local quarries. One if the most famous mosaics at the museum, from the A.D. 4th century, shows a bearded Oceanus with crab claws coming out of his head, with Thetis with wings coming out her head. The heads are surrounded by colorful fish and cherubs .

A mosaic from Antioch now at Princetons

Other impressive mosaic images include Clytemnestra beckoning her daughter Iphigenia; a drunken Dionysus helping a satyr; Hercules with head of an adult and the body of an infant; and an evil eye being attacked by a scorpion. The mosaics are in good condition and survived the earthquakes because they were on the floor. The largest is 600 square feet and can be observed from a balcony. The scenes from daily life have helped historians grasp what life was like in Roman times.

The mosaic artists traveled to Tunis and Alexandria to learn techniques and carried mosaic books to help their clients chose what patterns and designs they wanted. Sometimes they worked alone. Other times they worked with a team for a year or more. The museum has so many of their masterpieces that many of them are in storage. Many more are hidden under the dirt or buildings scattered around town.

Ephesus

Ephesus was arguably most important Roman city in Asia Minor before the rise of Constantinople. The Greeks founded the city but it was the Romans who made it the capital of their Asian province and turned it into one of the wealthiest cities of their empire. Described as the best-preserved classical city in the Mediterranean and called "the first and greatest metropolis in Asia" it was the home of as many as 250,000 people and is located today about 100 kilometers south of Izmir, Turkey. Even though it is situated about eight miles inland today, Ephesus was once a great port and in its time the commercial hub of the Mediterranean. It was also one of the first cities in the world to embrace Christianity and was the place where St. Paul sent his letter to the Ephesians.

According to UNESCO: Located within what was once the estuary of the River Kaystros, Ephesus comprises successive Hellenistic and Roman settlements founded on new locations, which followed the coastline as it retreated westward. Excavations have revealed grand monuments of the Roman Imperial period including the Library of Celsus and the Great Theatre. Little remains of the famous Temple of Artemis, one of the “Seven Wonders of the World,” which drew pilgrims from all around the Mediterranean. Since the 5th century, the House of the Virgin Mary, a domed cruciform chapel seven kilometres from Ephesus, became a major place of Christian pilgrimage. The Ancient City of Ephesus is an outstanding example of a Roman port city, with sea channel and harbour basin. [Source: UNESCO World Heritage Site website =]

Artemis from Ephesus

“Within what was once the estuary of the river Kaystros, a continuous and complex settlement history can be traced in Ephesus beginning from the seventh millennium BCE at Cukurici Mound until the present at Selçuk. Favourably located geographically, it was subject to continuous shifting of the shore line from east to west due to sedimentation, which led to several relocations of the city site and its harbours. The Neolithic settlement of Cukurici Mound marking the southern edge of the former estuary is now well inland, and was abandoned prior to settlement on the Ayasuluk Hill from the Middle Bronze Age. Founded by the 2nd millennium BCE, the sanctuary of the Ephesian Artemis, originally an Anatolian mother goddess, became one of the largest and most powerful sanctuaries of the ancient world. The Ionian cities that grew up in the wake of the Ionian migrations joined in a confederacy under the leadership of Ephesus.

“In the fourth century BCE, Lysimachos, one of the twelve generals of Alexander the Great, founded the new city of Ephesus, while leaving the old city around the Artemision. When Asia Minor was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 133 BCE, Ephesus was designated as the capital of the new province Asia. Excavations and conservation over the past 150 years have revealed grand monuments of the Roman Imperial period lining the old processional way through the ancient city including the Library of Celsus and terrace houses. Little remains of the famous Temple of Artemis, one of the ‘seven wonders of the world’ which drew pilgrims from all around the Mediterranean until it was eclipsed by Christian pilgrimage to the Church of Mary and the Basilica of St. John in the 5th century CE. Pilgrimage to Ephesus outlasted the city and continues today. The Mosque of Isa Bey and the medieval settlement on Ayasuluk Hill mark the advent of the Selçuk and Ottoman Turks. =

Ephesus is an important cultural site because: 1) It is an exceptional testimony to the cultural traditions of the Hellenistic, Roman Imperial and early Christian periods as reflected in the monuments in the centre of the Ancient City and Ayasuluk. The cultural traditions of the Roman Imperial period are reflected in the outstanding representative buildings of the city centre including the Celsus Library, Hadrian’s Temple, the Serapeion and Terrace House 2, with its wall paintings, mosaics and marble panelling showing the style of living of the upper levels of society at that time. 2) Ephesus as a whole is an outstanding example of a settlement landscape determined by environmental factors over time. The ancient city stands out as a Roman harbour city, with sea channel and harbour basin along the Kaystros River. Earlier and subsequent harbours demonstrate the changing river landscape from the Classical Greek to Medieval periods. =

3) Historical accounts and archaeological remains of significant traditional and religious Anatolian cultures beginning with the cult of Cybele/Meter until the modern revival of Christianity are visible and traceable in Ephesus, which played a decisive role in the spread of Christian faith throughout the Roman Empire. The extensive remains of the Basilica of St. John on Ayasuluk Hill and those of the Church of Mary in Ephesus are testament of the city’s importance to Christianity. Two important Councils of the early Church were held at Ephesus in 431 and 449 CE, initiating the veneration of Mary in Christianity, which can be seen as a reflection of the earlier veneration of Artemis and the Anatolian Cybele. Ephesus was also the leading political and intellectual centre, with the second school of philosophy in the Aegean, and Ephesus as a cultural and intellectual centre had great influence on philosophy and medicine. =

Sights in Ephesus

Ephesus has been restored by an Austrian archeological team that began work at the turn of the 2-th century. The ruins cover over 2000 acres. Outside the entrance gate is a completely restored gymnasium, the Roman equivalent of a secondary school. The first place you come to inside the gate is a huge a 24,000 seat amphitheater where St. Paul spoke during the first century after Christ's death and Joan Baez sang old Bob Dylan songs in the 1980s. After one of St. Paul's sermon's a riot broke out because the citizens of Ephesus feared that Christ would dethrone their popular pagan goddess Diana. From the hill in back of the amphitheater there is a panoramic view of the entire city. The Marble Way is road paved with flat stones. Heading up the Marble Way you pass the Library of Celsius, the most beautifully restored structure in Ephesus. The marble facade of the library is comprised of two tiers of Corinthian columns and niches with statues. If you are so inclined it is possible to crawl around in the ancient sewer system underneath the building.

Ascending from the library to the top of a hill is the Sacred Way, an ancient marble road lined with columns its entire length. Off to one side of the road is an ancient brothel, identified with a small inscribed foot and a woman with a mohawk haircut. As you climb up the hill you pass the sacred pump room which produced water that purportedly made sterile women fertile. Further up is the Fountain of the Trojans and the Temple of Hadrian. The later is adorned with friezes of elephants, warriors, kings and gods, and was used to worship the emperor.

The House of the Virgin (a few kilometers from Ephesus) is, according to legend, where the Apostle John and the Virgin Mary came here after Christ was crucified. Mary reportedly lived here until she died. She is not buried anywhere because, according to the Catholic scripture but not the Bible, when she died she rose into the sky “assumed body and soul into Heavenly glory.” The Vatican has sanctioned the site which is visited each year by thousands of pilgrims. Mary’s House is a tiny stone structure, dimly lit despite burning candles placed throughout it. Nuns who oversee the chapel sell rosary beads. Visitors can collect water from the chapel’s spring. The black handless statue of the virgin that once sat inside the house can now be seen in the museum in Selçuk.

Temple of Diana, One of the Seven Wonders of the World

The Temple of Diana in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, was ordered by King Croesus and completed around 550 B.C. after 120 years of labor. Described by Phion as the greatest of the seven wonders, the Temple of Diana was 225-feet-wide and 525-feet-long, with 127 sixty-foot-high marble columns. The largest and most complex temple in ancient times, it was made out of marble, wood and tile, and built on marshy soil so it would be immune to earthquakes. Even so the temple had to be rebuilt three times before Goths destroyed it in 262 A.D.

Temple of Diana built around 550 B.C. near the sea and destroyed by invading Goths around A.D. 262. Ertastratus ordered the Temple of Diana to be burned down he did so to ensure that it was remembered, English archeologist J. T. Wood rediscovered the temple in 1874 after 11 years of digging. Today the ruins are located a mile or so away from Ephesus, and unfortunately all that remains is a foundation.

Temple of Diana

Diana of Ephesus, also known as the virgin huntress of the moon, was worshipped throughout most of Europe and the Mediterranean during ancient times and she still has followers today. The Greeks knew her as Artemis, and her origins can be traced as far back as Babylon. She may even have evolved from Stone Age earth mothers goddesses that dominated primitive cultures before the Greeks popularized male gods.

Despite the fact she was a permanent virgin, she was the goddess of fertility, and the famous statue of her now in the Selçuk Museum has endowed her with 18 breasts. None of the breasts have nipples, however, which led one classical scholar to venture they were actually bull's testes or the ova on scared bees. Whatever they were Diana's image has fascinated artists for centuries. Other statues have placed bees on her knees and lions over her shoulders. A Raphael painting of her graces the Vatican. And recently a Brooklyn artist gave her four buttocks as well as a chestful of breasts.

What got St. Paul into trouble was his statement: "Diana should be despised and her magnificence should be destroyed" The Temple that honored her was a popular tourist attraction and silver souvenirs of Diana and her temple were sold on the streets of Ephesus like miniature Eiffel towers and Statues of Liberty are sold today. During the festival of Artemis images of Diana were placed on the steps of her temple for worshipers to kiss. [Source: Vicky Goldberg, New York Times, August 21, 1994]. Initiates to cult honoring Cybele in Asia Minor were baptized in bull blood, which some thought ensured eternal life. Once accepted into the cult devotees were supposed to castrate themselves as offering of their fertility in exchange for the fertility of the world.

Parion — a Roman-Era Port in Turkey

In July 2024, archaeologists excavating an ancient site in the port city of Parion, Turkey announced they had unearthed a Roman-era harbor facility there which may have acted as a military compound, Anatolian Archaeology reported. Declan Gallagher wrote in Men's Journal: Excavations have been conducted on Parion for 20 years or so and have led to many notable finds, including a separate harbor located earlier, but this latest discovery reshapes the exploration as it was found beyond the coastline and underwater. Scientists believe that it served a completely different purpose than the earlier-discovered harbor, meaning Parion was likely an even more active port town than previously thought. [Source Declan Gallagher, Men's Journal, July 24, 2024]

Parion was a main trading hub for all goods coming from ancient Greece and the Aegean Sea into Istanbul and beyond. The excavations, sponsored by Turkey’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism, and have been led by Dr. Vedat Keleş, are taking place in Turkey’s Canakkale province near the village of Kemer. Keleş explained that the harbor dates back to the Romans’ time in Parion. The city was founded in 709 B.C., but the Romans came into possession of the town in 133 A.D. and ruled it for several hundred years. “This harbor, compared to the southern harbor, which served as a commercial port, is slightly smaller and filled with alluvium deposited by the river running through the city,” Keleş explained. “Parion was a legion colony, so there is a possibility that this harbor could have been a military port.”

In addition to their underwater endeavors, Keleş and his team are also conducting several prominent excavations on land. They are honing in on two particular areas of Parion, one which was a cultural hub and the other a commercial post. “One is the theater, the other is the agora,” Keleş confirmed. “The theater work is difficult because it is destroyed. Because a city wall was built over the stage building and almost all the seating rows and architectural parts of the theater were used within this city wall,” he explained. “Therefore, the structure seems to have changed considerably in the late period. Even though we have some trouble due to this destruction, our work progresses slowly.”

Notitia Dignitatum (Register of Dignitaries), A.D. 400

The Notitia Dignitatum (Register of Dignitaries, c. A.D. 400) is an official listing of all civil and military posts in the Roman Empire, East and West. It survives as a 1551 copy of the now-missing original and is the major source of information on the administrative organization of the late Roman Empire. William Fairley wrote: “The Notitia Dignitatum is an official register of all the offices, other than municipal, which existed in the Roman Empire.... Gibbon gave to this document a date between 395 and 407 when the Vandals disturbed the Roman regime in Gaul. [Source: Notitia Dignitatum (Register of Dignitaries), William Fairley, in Translations and Reprints from Original Sources of European History, Vol. VI:4 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press), 1899].

“The Notitia Dignitatum has preserved for us, as no other document has done, a complete outline view of the Roman administrative system in early fifth century. The hierarchic arrangement is displayed perfectly. The division of prefectures, dioceses and provinces, and the rank of their respective governors is set forth at length. The military origin of the whole system appears in the titles of the staff officers, even in those departments whose heads had, since the time of Constantine, been deprived of all military command.”

Register of Dignitaries in the East

Register of the Dignitaries Both Civil and Military, in the Districts of the East: The pretorian prefect of the East.
The pretorian prefect of Illyricum.
The prefect of the city of Constantinople.
Two masters of horse and foot in the presence.
[The master] of horse and foot in the East.
[The master] of horse and foot in Thrace.
[The master] of horse and foot in Illyricum.
The provost of the sacred bedchamber.
The master of the offices.
The quaestor.
The count of the sacred bounties.
The count of the private domains.
Two counts of the household troops:
of horse,
of foot.
The superintendent of the sacred bedchamber.
The chief of the notaries.
The castellan of the sacred palace.
The masters of bureaus:
of memorials,
of correspondence,
of requests,
of Greek [versions].
[Source: Notitia Dignitatum (Register of Dignitaries), William Fairley, in Translations and Reprints from Original Sources of European History, Vol. VI:4 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press), 1899].

Roman Empire in the East Under Trajan in AD 117

Two proconsuls:
of Asia; of Achaia.
The count of the East.
The Augustal prefect.
Four vicars:
of [the diocese of] Asia; of [the diocese of] Pontus; of [the diocese of] the Thraces; of [the diocese of] Macedonia.
Two military counts:
of Egypt; of Isauria.
Thirteen dukes:
in [the diocese of] Egypt two:
of the Libyas; of Thebais.
in [the diocese of] the East six:
of Phoenice; of Euphratensis and Syria; of Palestine; of Osroena; of Mesopotamia; of Arabia.
in [the diocese of] Pontus one:
of Armenia.
in [the diocese of] Thrace two:
of Moesia secunda; of Scythia.
in [the diocese of] Illyricum two:
of ripuarian Dacia; of Moesia prima.

Fifteen consulars:
in [the diocese of] the East five:
of Palestine; of Phoenice; of Syria; of Cilicia; of Cyprus
in [the diocese of] Asia three:
of Pamphylia; of Hellespontus; of Lydia.
in [the diocese of] Pontus two:
of Galatia; of Bithynia.
in [the diocese of] Thrace two:
of Europe; of Thrace.
in [the diocese of] Ilyricum three:
of Crete; of.Macedonia; of Mediterranean Dacia.
Egypt, however, does not possess the consular dignity.

Forty presidents: in [the diocese of) Egypt five: of upper Lybia; of lower Lybia; of Thebais; of Egypt; of Arcadia. in [the diocese of] the East eight: of Palaestina salutaris; of Palaestina secunda; of Phoenice Libani; of Euphratensis; of Syria salutaris; of Osroena; of Mesopotamia; of Cilicia secunda. in [the diocese of] Asia seven: of Pisidia; of Lycaonia; of Phrygia Pacatiana; of Phrygia salutaris; of Lycia; of Caria; of the Islands. in [the diocese of] Pontus eight: of Honorias; of Cappadocia prima; of Cappadocia secunda; of Helenopontus; of Poutus Polemoniacus; of Armenia prima; of Armenia secunda; of Galatia salutaris. in [the diocese of] Thrace four: of Haemimontus; of Rhodope; of Moesia secunda; of Scythia. in [the diocese of] Illyricum eight: of Thessalia; of ancient Epirus; of new Epirus; of ripuarian Dacia; of Moesia prima; of Praevalitana; of Dardania; of Macedonia salutaris. Two correctors: of Augustamnica; of Paphlagonia.

Pretorian Prefect of the East

Under the control of the illustrious pretorian prefect of the East are the dioceses below mentioned (Each of the great officials of the empire at this time was dignified and graded by one of three titles: illustris, illustrious; speciabilis, worshipful; clarissimus, right honorable. The first of these titles is the highest. In general, it may be said that the illustrious correspond in rank to our cabinet officers, the worshipful to our State governors and highest military officers, and the right honorable to our brigadier-generals and colonels):
of the East; of Egypt; of Asia; of Pontus; of Thrace.
Provinces:of [the diocese of] the East fifteen:Palestine; Phoenice; Syria; Cilicia; Cyprus; Arabia (also a duke and a military count); Isauria; Palaestina salutaris; Palaestina secunda; Phoenice Libani; Euphratensis; Syria salutaris; Osroena; Mesopotamia; Cilicia secunda.
of [the diocese of] Egypt five:upper Libya; lower Libya; Thebais; Egypt; Arcadia.
of (the diocese of] Asia ten:Pamphylia; Hellespontus; Lydia; Pisidia; Lycaonia; Phrygia Pacatiana; Phrygia salutaris; Lycia; Caria; the Islands.
of [the diocese of] Pontus ten:Galatia; Bithynia; Honorias; Cappadocia prima; Cappadocia secunda; Pontus Polemoniacus; Helenopontus; Armenia prima; Armenia securida; Galatia)' salutaris.
of [the diocese of] Thrace six. Europa; Thracia; Heemimontus; Rhodopa; Moesia secunda-, Scythia.
[Source: Notitia Dignitatum (Register of Dignitaries), William Fairley, in Translations and Reprints from Original Sources of European History, Vol. VI:4 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press), 1899].

Diocletian Tetrarchy in the late AD 3rd century

The staff *1 of the illustrious pretorian prefect of the East: chief of staff, (princeps) chief deputy, (cornicularius) chief assistant, (adiutor) custodian, (commentariensis) keeper of the records, (ab actis) Receivers of taxes, (numerarii) Assistants, (subadiuuae) A curator of correspondence, (cura epistolarum) A registrar, (regerendarius) Secretaries, (exceptores) Aids, (adiutores) Notaries. (singularii)

*1 The dozen officers or types of officers here indicated were the heads of departments under the pretorian prefect. All the other officia or staffs were on a similar model. These officials belonged to the political aristocracy. The whole number of officers might run into the hundreds, besides numbers of slaves who did the drudgery. The count of the officials; the proconsul of Africa, 400; the vicar of Africa, 300; the sacred bounties, 224 regular assistants and 610 supernumeraries. The beginning of a civil service career under the pretorian prefect for a Roman gentleman, after a training in the law, was the post of treasury advocate of whom we are told that there were at one time 150 under a single prefect.

The officials named in the text received high salaries. After working through to the highest staff position, which was commonly held for either one or two years, they were eligible for the lower governorships, as presidents or correctors. and so on till the highest stations were reached. The Latin titles have been given to make it clear that the translation cannot be an exact equivalent for the terms in use under a system so different from anything now in existence.

The pretorian prefect of the East does not receive post-warrants for each year, but himself issues them. The cursus publicus was the post-service for the conveyance of government dispatches and of government officials. It was elaborately organized and very effective. Its control was in the bands of the pretorian prefects. Its control was in the hands of the pretorian prefects and and the master's of the offices. Other officers were limited in their use of this service, as the last paragraph of each chapter in the Notitia shows. There is no reference to this service in the Notitia of the West, though there is no reason to doubt that the regulations there were similar.

Administrative Positions in Asia

Proconsul of Asia
Under the control of the worshipful proconsul of Asia are the provinces mentioned below:
Asia, The Islands, Hellespontus.
His staff is as follows:
A chief of the same staff,
A chief deputy,
A chief assistant,
A custodian,
A keeper of the records.
Receivers of taxes,
Clerks,
A receiver of requests,
Secretaries and other officials.
The proconsul of Asia is entitled to ___
[Source: Notitia Dignitatum (Register of Dignitaries), William Fairley, in Translations and Reprints from Original Sources of European History, Vol. VI:4 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press), 1899].

Augustal Prefect
Under the control of the worshipful Augustal prefect are the provinces mentioned below:
Lybia superior, Lybia inferior, Thebais, Egypt, Arcadia, Augustamnica.
His staff is as follows:
A chief of staff from the school of confidential agents of the first class, who at the close of two years' service, after adoring the imperial clemency, goes forth with insignia.
A chief deputy,
A custodian,
A quaestor,
An assistant,
A keeper of the records,
Receivers of taxes,
A curator of correspondence, Secretaries and other attendants.

The Augustal prefect is entitled to____
That is, advanced to such rank, consular or proconsular, as carries with it the privilege of insignia of office. Consular rank was attainable by those who did not become actual consuls.

Vicar of the Diocese of Asia
Under the control of the worshipful vicar of the diocese of Asia are the provinces mentioned below: Pamphylia, Lydia, Caria, Lycia. Lycaonia, Pisidia, Phrygia Pacatiana, Phrygia salutaris.
The staff of the worshipful vicar of the diocese of Asia is as follows:
A chief of staff from the school of confidential agents of the first class, who at the close of two years' service, after adoring the imperial clemency, goes forth with insignia.
A chief deputy,
A custodian,
An assistant,
A keeper of the records,
Receivers of taxes,
A curator of correspondence,
Secretaries and other officials.
The vicar of the diocese of Asia is entitled to____

Duke of Scythia
Under the control of the worshipful duke of Scythia:
Seven squadrons of cavalry
Auxiliaries: Eight organizations.
Legions of borderers: Seven organizations.
His staff is as follows:
A chief of staff, who at the end of his term of service pays adoration as a protector,
Accountants and their assistants,
A custodian,
An assistant,
A receiver of requests, or under-secretary,
Secretaries and other officials.
The duke of Scythia is entitled to five post-warrants in the year.
This adoration was equivalent to a modern presentation at court. A protector was a highly-privileged member of the imperial body-guard. To adore as protector was to be admitted either to this body-guard or to a rank equivalent to it in the nicely graded scale of precedence.

Consular of Palestine
Under the control of the right honorable consular of Palestine:
( Consulars, correctors, and most presidents were clarissimi, right honorable)
His staff is as follows:
A chief of staff,
A chief deputy,
A custodian,
A chief assistant,
A receiver of taxes,
A keeper of the records,
A receiver of requests, Secretaries and other cohortalini, who are not allowed to pass to another service without a warrant from the imperial clemency.
All the other consulars have a staff similar to that of the consular of Palestine.
( The lower members of staffs of officials of lesser dignity were called cohortalini; those attached to the higher staffs apparitores; these in the.staff; of the great palace functionaries, palatini. The cohortalini formed an hereditary caste from which escape was very difficult.)

President OF Thebais.
Under the control of the right honorable president of Thebais.
The province of Thebais.
The staff is as follows: [Precisely as in preceding section.]
All the other presidents have a staff similar to that of the president of Thebais.

Prefect Op the City of Constantinople

Master of the Soldiery in the Presence.
Under the control of the illustrious master of the soldiery in the, presence:
Five squadrons of palatine horse:
The senior promoted horse,
The companion cuirassiers,
The junior companion archers,
The companion Taifalians,
The Arcadian horse.
Seven squadrons of horse of the line:
The Biturigensian cuirassiers,
The senior Gallican heavy-armed horse,
The fifth Dalmatian horse,
The ninth Dalmatian horse,
The first shield-bearers,
The junior promoted horse,
The first Parthian cuirassiers.
[Source: Notitia Dignitatum (Register of Dignitaries), William Fairley, in Translations and Reprints from Original Sources of European History, Vol. VI:4 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press), 1899].

Six palatine legions:
The senior lancers,
The junior Jovians,
The junior Herculians, The Fortenses,
The Nervii,
The junior Matiarii.
Eighteen palatine auxilia
The senior Batavians,
The junior Brachiati,
The Salians,
The Constantians,
The senior Mattiaci,
The senior Gallican archers,
The junior Gallican archers,
The third Valens' archers,
The Defenders,
The Ractobarii,
The Anglevarii,
The Hiberi,
The Visi,
The fortunate junior Honorians,
The Victors,
The first Theodosians,
The third Theodosians,
The fortunate Isaurian Theodosians.

The staff of the aforesaid office of the master in the presence is [made up from officers] enrolled with the forces and assigned to staff duty. It includes the officers below mentioned:
A chief of staff,
Two accountants (numerarii),
A custodian,
Chief clerks (primiscrinios), who become accountants,
Clerks,
Secretaries and other attendants (apparitores).
The master of the soldiery in the presence is entitled to fifteen post-warrants in the year.

Organization.
The borderers (limitanei, ripenses) were stationed on the frontiers and served as cultivators of lands allotted to them as well as soldiers.
Borderers:
Infantry
legions old, 6,ooo men, new 1000.
auxilia 500 men
Cohorts 500 men
Cavalry
Cavalry: squadrons (cunei equitum, equiles, alae); 50 men.

Imperial troops. a. Troops of the line (comitatenses)
Infantry, legions; 1,000 men.
Cavalry, squadrons (vexillationes) 1500 men.
b. Troops of the second line (pseudo-comitatenses).
around Palatine troops, of higher rank and pay than the line.
d. The 12 schools, of 500 men each, palace guards.
B. Strength.
Total
Borderers
Infantry 249,500
360,000
Cavalry 110,500
Imperial
Infantry 145,000
194,500
Cavalry 46,500

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, escholarship.org ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Egypt sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Tour Egypt, Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com; Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com; Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Discover magazine, Times of London, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, BBC, Encyclopædia Britannica, Time, Newsweek, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “History of Warfare” by John Keegan (Vintage Books); “History of Art” by H.W. Janson Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.), Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.

Last updated July 2024