Marcus Aurelius: Life, Leadership, Meditations, Commodus | Early European History And Religion

Home | Category: Famous Emperors in the Roman Empire / Science and Philosophy

MARCUS AURELIUS (A.D. 161-180)

Marcus Aurelius equine statue
Marcus Aurelius (born A.D. 121, ruled 161-180) was the adopted son of Antonius Pius. He is regarded as a reflective philosopher-emperor and the last of the good emperors. He took the throne at a time when Rome's shortcomings and vulnerability were becoming apparent. The rich were hopelessly decadent, the middle class was disappearing, labor was performed mostly by slaves, and threats were present in the north and the east.

Marcus Aelius Aurelius Antoninus succeeded the emperor Antoninus Pius in 161, (as joint emperor with adoptive brother Lucius Verus). He ruled alone from 169. He spent much of his reign in putting down various rebellions, and was a persecutor of Christians. His fame rest, above all, on his Meditations, a series of reflections, strongly influenced by Epictetus, which represent a Stoic outlook on life. He died in 180 and was succeed by his natural son, thus ending the period of the adoptive emperors.

Marcus Aurelius spent two decades fighting four wars and an outbreak of the plague. Germans invaded Italy in 167 and Parthians challenged Roman forces in the Middle East. After the death Lucius Verus, Marcus Aurelius adopted brother and co-ruler of Rome, Marcus Aurelius spent much of his time on the Danubian frontier fending off attacks from German and Gothic tribes.

Marcus Aurelius believed that the good of society had precedence over individual comforts. While he was fending off invaders, he passed many reforms, suppressed gladiator spectacles, passed laws protecting slaves.A lthough his philosophy dovetailed with many Christian doctrines he persecuted Christian because they were regarded as a threat to the empire. His image endures on a famous equestrian statue in Rome.

The historian William Stearns Davis wrote: “No ruler ever came to power with higher ideals and purposes, but the reign was not a very prosperous one. The philosopher in the purple was afflicted by the widespread pestilences in the Empire, and by the dangerous wars on the frontiers. He struggled against the difficulties manfully, and overcame most of them; but his reign marks the beginning of the long slow decline of the Empire.” [Source: William Stearns Davis, ed., “Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources,” 2 Vols. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912-13), Vol. II: Rome and the West]

Marcus Aurelius was first of all a philosopher. He had studied in the school of the Stoics, and was himself the highest embodiment of their principles. He was wise brave, just, and temperate. In whatever he did he acted from a pure sense of duty. But his character as a man was no doubt greater than his ability as a statesman. So far as we know, Marcus Aurelius never shrank from a known duty, private or public; but it is not so clear that his sense of personal duty was always in harmony with the best interests of the empire. [Source: “Outlines of Roman History” by William C. Morey, Ph.D., D.C.L. New York, American Book Company (1901) \~]

Websites on Ancient Rome: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Rome sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Late Antiquity sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; BBC Ancient Rome bbc.co.uk/history; Perseus Project - Tufts University; perseus.tufts.edu ; Lacus Curtius penelope.uchicago.edu; The Internet Classics Archive classics.mit.edu ; Bryn Mawr Classical Review bmcr.brynmawr.edu; Cambridge Classics External Gateway to Humanities Resources web.archive.org; Ancient Rome resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library web.archive.org ; History of ancient Rome OpenCourseWare from the University of Notre Dame web.archive.org ; United Nations of Roma Victrix (UNRV) History unrv.com

Early Life and Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius

Juan Pablo Sánchez wrote in National Geographic History: Born in A.D. 121 into an aristocratic family in Rome, Marcus Aurelius received an excellent education in rhetoric and philosophy. He studied Greek and quoted freely from Homer and Euripides. Perhaps that’s why he wrote his Meditations in Greek rather than Latin, the Roman Empire’s official language. [Source Juan Pablo Sánchez, National Geographic History, November 16, 2023]

As a youth, he also became deeply interested in philosophy, particularly Stoicism, a school of thought that flourished in antiquity. One of its key tenets emphasizes the development of inner strength and the acceptance of things beyond one’s control. Founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium around 300 B.C., Stoicism grew to become one of the leading philosophies of the ancient world.

It flourished in ancient Rome, counting Cicero among its leading scholars (and a good source of information on Stoicism in Rome). Epictetus, a formerly enslaved Greek, became a highly influential Stoic philosopher studied by Marcus Aurelius. In fact, Meditations bears some resemblance to Epictetus’s collection of moral precepts, called Enchiridion (Manual).

But Marcus Aurelius’s work adds his own original voice to Stoicism’s philosophical tradition. He gravitated to the school of thought and came to believe that perception is the basis of true knowledge. Happiness could be found through the practice of virtue and being guided at all times by reason in the face of life’s vicissitudes.

Marcus Aurelius as Emperor

Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius was the adopted son of Antoninus Pius, and came to the throne at his father’s death. He ascended to the throne in A.D. 161, co-ruling with his adoptive brother Lucius Verus until Lucius’s death, in 169. According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: “After Antoninus' death, imperial power was for the first time shared between two co-emperors, his adoptive sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Verus waged a successful war against Parthia and captured Ctesiphon, but died early in 169 A.D. [Source: Department of Greek and Roman Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2000, metmuseum.org \^/]

Pat Southern wrote for the BBC: “Hadrian determined upon Marcus Aurelius for the succession while he was still a child. Marcus was the nephew of Faustina and her husband Antoninus Pius, who succeeded Hadrian. On the death of Hadrian, Marcus married their daughter.” [Source: Pat Southern, BBC, February 17, 2011]

While he was fending off invaders, Marcus Aurelius passed many reforms, suppressed gladiator spectacles and passed laws protecting slaves. Although his philosophy dovetailed with many Christian doctrines he persecuted Christian because they were regarded as a threat to the empire.

The period of Marcus Aurelius’s rule was a time of great misfortunes. Rome was afflicted by a deadly plague and famine, the most terrible in her history. From the East it spread over the provinces, carrying with it death and desolation. One writer affirms, with perhaps some exaggeration, that half the population of the empire perished. The fierce barbarians of the north were also trying to break through the frontiers, and threatening to overrun the provinces. But Marcus Aurelius met all these dangers and difficulties with courage and patience. \~\

Marcus Aurelius increased social mobility by promoting army officer and civil administrators on merit and ability, rather than on birth and class. Pat Southern wrote for the BBC: “The increasing employment of the middle classes had begun under Hadrian. Marcus refined the process, appointing capable people to posts most suited to their abilities. Usually he elevated them in rank also, so that senatorial feathers were not ruffled. By this means he laid the foundations of social mobility and broadened the recruitment base for the armies, allowing for greater future flexibility. [Source: Pat Southern, BBC, February 17, 2011]

Column of Marcus Aurelius

Dr Jon Coulston of the University of St. Andrews wrote for the BBC: “The Column of Marcus Aurelius stands in the Piazza Colonna in Rome and was both modelled on - and improved upon - the earlier Trajan's Column. A helical frieze depicts the Marcomannic Wars of Marcus Aurelius (168 - 175 A.D. and 178- 180 AD), waged against Germanic and steppe nomad tribes across the middle Danube. [Source: Dr Jon Coulston, BBC, February 17, 2011 |::|]

“There are fewer windings of the frieze, fewer human figures, less scenery, more deeply carved relief and reduced sculptural detail than on Trajan's Column. The result is that the visual impact is more effective for the viewer below. While this makes for a more effective propaganda monument, there is also far less of an historical framework or an attempt to depict specific historical events. This frustrates historians wanting to use the reliefs as a source for the Antonine period. |::|

“The wars are depicted as the brutal extermination of barbarian peoples without the magnanimous treatment of the defeated seen on the earlier column. No inscription or pedestal reliefs survive, and the date of the Marcus Column is unsure, but it was certainly a posthumous monument to the achievements of Marcus Aurelius. |::|

Marcus Aurelius Battles on Rome’s Frontiers

Marcus Aurelius on horseback

Pat Southern wrote for the BBC: “A few years after his accession in 161 A.D. Marcus was plunged into warfare on the northern frontiers, where it was essential that the emperor himself led the campaigns. Here he wrote his philosophical meditations. Before he could bring these wars to a satisfactory conclusion, he was forced to go to the east where his general Avidius Cassius had raised rebellion. He was back on the Danube by 178 A.D. and remained there till his death in 180 AD. [Source: Pat Southern, BBC, February 17, 2011]

According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: The reign of Marcus Aurelius “was marked by incessant warfare with the Germanic tribes along the Upper Danube frontier, later known as the Marcomannic Wars (167–75 A.D.). The theme of victory became dominant in official art, as conquests were commemorated by triumphal arches and monumental columns erected in Rome to celebrate the military achievements of the dynasty. The constant campaigns, however, eventually drained imperial revenues.” [Source: Department of Greek and Roman Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2000, metmuseum.org \^/]

The two great frontier enemies of Rome were the Parthians on the east and the Germans on the north. The Parthians were soon repelled. But the barbarians from the north, the Marcomanni and Quadi, continued their attacks for fourteen years. Pressed by the Slavonians and the Turanians on the north and east, these tribes were the forerunners of that great migration of the northern nations which finally overran the empire. With courage and a high sense of his mission Marcus Aurelius struggled against these hordes, and succeeded for the most part in maintaining the northern frontier. He died in his camp at Vienna, at his post of duty. [Source: “Outlines of Roman History” by William C. Morey, Ph.D., D.C.L. New York, American Book Company (1901) \~]

Eutropius on the Reign of Marcus Aurelius

Eutropius (A.D. 4th Century) wrote in “The Reign of Marcus Aurelius”: “Marcus Aurelius was trained in philosophy by Apollonius of Chalcedon: in the Greek language by Sextus of Chaeronea, the grandson of Plutarch, while the eminent orator Fronto instructed him in Latin literature. He conducted himself towards all men at Rome, as if he had been their equal, being moved by no arrogance by his elevation to the Empire. He exercised prompt liberality, and managed the provinceswith the utmost kindness and indulgence. [Source: Eutropius (A.D. 4th Century), The Reign of Marcus Aurelius, 161-180 CE, from Compendium of Roman History, 8:.12-14 ,William Stearns Davis, ed., “Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources,” 2 Vols. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912-13), Vol. II: Rome and the West]

“Under his rule affairs were successfully conducted against the Germans. He himself carried on a war with the Marcomanni, which was greater than any in the memory of man (in the way of wars with the Germans)---so that it was compared to the Punic Wars, for it was exceedingly formidable, and in it whole armies were lost; especially as in this reign, after the victory over the Parthians there occurred a great pestilence so that at Rome, and throughout Italy and the provinces a large fraction of the population, and actually the bulk of the regular troops perished from the plague.

“With the greatest labor and patience he persevered for three whole years at Carnutum [a strategically located fortress town in Pannonia], and brought the Marcomannic war to an end; a war in which the Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Suevi and all the barbarians in that region, had joined the outbreak of the Marcomanni. He slew several thousand men, and having delivered the Pannonians from bondage held a triumph at Rome. As the treasury was drained by the war, and he had no money to give his soldiers; and as he would not lay any extra tax on the provinces or Senate, he sold off all his imperial furniture and decorations by an auction held in the Forum of Trajan, consisting of gold and cups of crystal and precious stone, silk garments belonging to his wife and to himself, embroidered---as they were---with gold, and numbers of jeweled ornaments. This sale was kept up through two successive months and a great deal of money was raised by it. After his victory, however, he refunded the money to such purchasers as were willing to restore what they had bought, but was by no means troublesome to those who wished to keep their purchase.

“After his victory he was so magnificent in his display of games he is said to have exhibited in the arena one hundred lions at once. Having then at last rendered the state happy by his excellent management and gentleness of character, he died in the eighteenth year of his reign, in the sixty-first of his life. He was enrolled among the gods, all the Senate voting unanimously that he should have such honor.”

Marcus Aurelius: the Philosopher

Richard Harris playing Marcus Aurelius in the film Gladiator

Marcus Aurelius followed the stoic philosophy. He dressed plainly and lived frugally and wrote a book on philosophy called “Meditations” that is still quoted today. In regard to his position, Marcus Aurelius wrote: "As the Emperor, Rome is my homeland; but as a man, I am a citizen of the world...Asia and Europe are mere dots on the map, the ocean is a drop of water, Mount Athos is a grain of sand in the universe."

Marcus Aurelius believed that the good of society had precedence over individual comforts. He studied in the school of the Stoics, and was himself the highest embodiment of their principles. He was wise brave, just, and temperate. In whatever he did he acted from a pure sense of duty. But his character as a man was no doubt greater than his ability as a statesman. So far as we know, Marcus Aurelius never shrank from a known duty, private or public; but it is not so clear that his sense of personal duty was always in harmony with the best interests of the empire. [Source: “Outlines of Roman History” by William C. Morey, Ph.D., D.C.L. New York, American Book Company (1901) \~]

Marcus Aurelius expressed in his life and writings the highest ideas of Roman philosophy. The Romans cannot, however, be said to have shown any originality in their philosophical systems. These they derived almost entirely from the Greeks. The two systems which were most popular with them were Epicureanism and Stoicism. The Epicureans believed that happiness was the great end of life. But the high idea of happiness advocated by the Greek philosophers became degraded into the selfish idea of pleasure, which could easily excuse almost any form of indulgence. In Rome we see this idea of life exercising its influence especially upon the wealthy and indolent classes. The Stoics, on the other hand, believed that the end of life was to live according to the highest law of our nature. This doctrine tended to make strong and upright characters. It could not well have a degrading influence; so we find some of the noblest men of Rome adhering to its tenets—such men as Cato, Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. The Stoic philosophy also exercised a great and beneficial influence upon the Roman jurists, who believed that the law of the state should be in harmony with the higher law of justice and equity. [Source: “Outlines of Roman History” by William C. Morey, Ph.D., D.C.L. New York, American Book Company (1901) \~]

Meditations

Meditations is a treatise on the Stoic philosophy extolling the importance of virtue. The work has captivated world leaders from Prussia’s Frederick the Great to U.S. president Bill Clinton. In modern China, after Premier Wen Jiabao claimed he had read Marcus Aurelius's Meditations nearly 100 times the work became a top seller in China, reaching No. 5 on the bestseller list.

Juan Pablo Sánchez wrote in National Geographic History: Throughout his life, notably at odd moments during the military campaign, he jotted down his personal struggles, philosophical beliefs, and insights about being a better ruler and a person. Out of this sincere expression of introspection came 12 books contemplating life and the human condition. In total this collection is called Meditations.[Source Juan Pablo Sánchez, National Geographic History, November 16, 2023]

It’s believed Marcus Aurelius wrote Meditations as a form of introspection rather than for larger public consumption. The entries range from blunt maxims to cogent dissertations, and there is no definitive organization to the work—though some patterns have been identified, with themes organized around Stoic philosophy. Overall, it is generally agreed that Meditations gives a private window into what life was like for an imperial Roman individual to live as a Stoic.

Despite being written for his eyes only, the philosopher emperor's private journal, Meditations, has now been read by millions seeking his stoic wisdom and life lessons. The work starts as a kind of reckoning in which Marcus Aurelius gives thanks to all those who positively influenced him throughout his life. For example, he credits his tutors for keeping him from superstition and vice and turning him toward a more austere and virtuous life. The most important of these tutors, he remembers, was Quintus Junius Rusticus, who corrected his impetuous character and introduced him to the Stoic philosophers.

The second-century A.D. world of Emperor Marcus Aurelius was in shambles. A great plague ravaged western Europe, as he embarked on a long and bloody war against the Germanic tribes along the Danube frontier. Faced with these woes, along with old age and thoughts of death, the emperor sought comfort in philosophy.

Marcus Aurelius wrote Meditations while in the midst of a military campaign. At the end of Book II, he mentions Carnuntum, a military base on the Danube (near modern Vienna). Another note at the end of Book I refers to “the River Gran, among the Quadi.” The River Gran (today’s Hron River) is a Danube tributary that runs through Slovakia. The fact that Marcus Aurelius was there shows he was not satisfied with directing operations from Carnuntum but instead crossed the Danube into barbarian territory to lead from the front. But even at the warfront, he made time to write.

Marcus Aurelius also reminisces about his life at the court in Rome, where he arrived at age 17. His adoptive father, then emperor Antoninus Pius, maintained a modest lifestyle, and so the young Marcus Aurelius was not thrust into a world of sumptuous clothes and luxurious living; he didn’t even have a personal guard. The future emperor admired the dedication with which his adoptive father managed the empire and his calm but decisive personality.

Meditations at Standard Ebooks standardebooks.org/ebooks
The Meditations by Marcus Aurelius at Project Gutenberg gutenberg.org,
The Meditations public domain audiobook at LibriVox librivox.org ;
Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, a new translation from the Greek original, with a Life, Notes, &c., by R. Graves, 1792, at Google Books books.google.com
Multiple editions of the Meditations at the Internet Archive archive.org

Topics Addressed by Marcus Aurelius in Meditations

Juan Pablo Sánchez wrote in National Geographic History: While Marcus Aurelius doesn’t reflect directly about his life as an emperor, he touches on important related topics, including the weight of his responsibilities and the need to uphold justice. He recognizes that he must make decisions in the best interest of the people he governs. He writes: “Begin each day by telling yourself: Today I shall be meeting with interference, ingratitude, insolence, disloyalty, ill will, and selfishness ... None of these things can injure me, for nobody can implicate me in what is degrading.” [Source Juan Pablo Sánchez, National Geographic History, November 16, 2023]

He recognizes that power can be a burden and a temptation, emphasizing the importance of avoiding arrogance and maintaining humility in the face of authority. He also offers insights on how to cope with difficult situations, maintain inner tranquility, and remain focused on one’s purpose in the face of obstacles.

Among his more personal observations are the things that seem to vex him. He acknowledges that he hates what most human beings seem to love. Gladiatorial games, for example, repulse him; sex is reduced to “a brief seizure.” And he does not understand why people are impressed by the purple robes worn by senators and emperors, when these are merely “sheep wool dyed with shellfish blood.” He tries to remain calm at all times and not bother with what his neighbor will say or think about him. As he reminds himself: “It never ceases to amaze me: We all love ourselves more than other people but care more about their opinion than our own.”

Family plays a small part in his writings, although he is exceedingly grateful for his wife, Faustina the Younger, daughter of Antonius Pius. He describes her as “so obedient, and so affectionate, and so simple.” Other contemporary sources were not as kind to Faustina. Historians such as Cassius Dio accused her of committing adultery with handsome soldiers and gladiators. In his writings, however, Marcus Aurelius has only good words for her. The two had 13 children together, but only six lived past childhood. When Faustina died, in 175, the emperor grieved the loss. He entombed his wife in the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome.

Marcus Aurelius on War and Death

Juan Pablo Sánchez wrote in National Geographic History: Writing night after night from his military encampment along the Danube, Marcus Aurelius turns to darker subjects, including the nature of war. At various points, he notates the gruesome reality of combat: “Have you ever seen a severed hand or foot, or a decapitated head, just lying somewhere far away from the body it belonged to ... ?”[Source Juan Pablo Sánchez, National Geographic History, November 16, 2023]

But when day breaks, those ruminations fade and reality prevails. The philosopher by night must be a military leader by day. He acknowledges that it is not always easy. “At dawn, when you have trouble getting out of bed, tell yourself: ‘I have to go to work—as a human being,’” even though it’s preferable “to huddle under the blankets.”

There are reflections on great generals of the past, such as Alexander the Great, Caesar, and Pompey, and how, despite their resounding triumphs, “they too departed this life.” Also mentioned are the anonymous inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum who suffocated under the ash of Mount Vesuvius.

Marcus Aurelius on Finding Peace

Juan Pablo Sánchez wrote in National Geographic History: Above all, the emperor’s greatest quest is to find peace of mind, as he muses how quickly life passes: “Existence flows past us like a river: The ‘what’ is in constant flux, the ‘why’ has a thousand variations.” In the light of this transience, he states the best course is to “do everything as if it were the last thing you were doing in your life.” [Source Juan Pablo Sánchez, National Geographic History, November 16, 2023]

And yet, death offers Marcus Aurelius a kind of liberation, a chance to detach from a world where many ignore the only values he recognizes—that of rational virtue and moral good. The true drama of the philosopher-emperor is that he tries to love his fellow human beings: “The things ordained for you—teach yourself to be atone with those. And the people who share them with you—treat them with love. With real love.”

All this Marcus Aurelius tells himself without anguish or despair. Even death must be accepted with gratitude: “Don’t look down on death but welcome it.” Death is part of the natural scheme of things, he muses, comparing it with “an olive that ripens and falls. / Praising its mother, thanking the tree it grew on.” He says to accept death “in cheerfulness and truth, grateful to the gods from the bottom of your heart.” Marcus Aurelius died on March 17, 180, at age 58, a victim of the plague.

Words of Wisdom from Meditations

persecution of Christians

People exist for one another. You can instruct or endure them. Marcus Aurelius, (VIII, 59)

No carelessness in your actions. No confusion in your words. No imprecision in your thoughts. No retreating into your own soul, or trying to escape it. Marcus Aurelius, (VIII, 51)

Remain straightforward, upright, reverent, serious, unadorned, an ally of justice, pious, kind, affectionate, and doing your duty with a will ... The only rewards of our existence here are an unstained character and unselfish acts. Marcus Aurelius, (VI, 30)

Life is short. That’s all there is to say. Get what you can from the present—Each of us lives only now, this brief instant. Marcus Aurelius, (III, 10) (Do you have a morning routine? Here's how Marcus Aurelius started his day.)

Never regard something as doing you good if it makes you betray a trust, or lose your sense of shame, or makes you show hatred, suspicion, ill will, or hypocrisy. Marcus Aurelius, (III, 7) (Apparently men think a lot about Rome—this might be why.)

Just pay attention, and resolve to live up to your own expectations. Marcus Aurelius, (VII, 58)

Marcus Aurelius’s Persecution of Christians

Although his philosophy dovetailed with many Christian doctrines Marcus Aurelius persecuted Christian because it is said they were regarded as a threat to the empire. This is perhaps the most striking example of the fact that the emperor’s sense of duty was not always in harmony with the highest welfare of people. [Source: “Outlines of Roman History” by William C. Morey, Ph.D., D.C.L. New York, American Book Company (1901) \~]

By Marcus Aurelius’s time, Christianity had found its way throughout the eastern and western provinces. It was at first received by the common people in the cities. As it was despised by many, it was the occasion of bitter opposition and often of popular tumults. The secret meetings of the Christians had given rise to scandalous stories about their practices. They were also regarded as responsible in some way for the calamities that inflicted the Roman Empire during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. \~\

Since the time of Nero, the policy of the rulers toward the new sect had varied. But the best of the emperors had hitherto been cautious like Trajan, or tolerant like Hadrian, or openly friendly like Antoninus. But Marcus Aurelius sincerely believed that the Christians were the cause of the popular tumults, and that the new sect was dangerous to the public peace. He therefore issued an order that those who denied their faith should be let alone, but those who confessed should be put to death. The most charitable judgment which can be passed upon this act is that it was the result of a great mistake made by the emperor regarding the character of the Christians and their part in disturbing the peace of society. \~\

Marcus Aurelius's Difficulty Choosing a Successor

Franz Lidz wrote in Smithsonian magazine: “Nowadays, Marcus Aurelius is remembered less for his philosophizing than for being smothered by young Commodus at the start of the swords-and-sandals epic Gladiator. In reality, he succumbed to a devastating plague — most likely smallpox — that wiped out as many as ten million people across the empire. The film hewed closer to received history in its depiction of Commodus, an antisocial Darwinist whose idea of culture was to slaughter giraffes and elephants and take up crescent-headed arrows to shoot the heads off ostriches. True, he actually wasn’t stabbed to death in the ring by a hunky gladiator, but his demise was no less theatrical: Commodus’ dissolute reign was cut short in A.D. 192 when, after several botched assassination attempts, he was strangled in the bath by his personal trainer, a wrestler named Narcissus. [Source: Franz Lidz, Smithsonian magazine, July-August 2016]

Commodus
J. A. S. Evans wrote in the New Catholic Encyclopedia: Hadrian adopted Antoninus Pius (138–161) and insisted at the same time that Antoninus adopt Marcus Aurelius (161–180) and Lucius Verus (161–169) as co-emperors. Marcus Aurelius, however, had a son, Commodus, and thus faced a dilemma. If he were to pass him over and adopt someone better qualified as his heir, the new emperor would regard Commodus as a threat and almost certainly put him to death. Thus he made Commodus coemperor in 178, and in 180, when he died, Commodus (180–192) became sole emperor at the age of 18. His reign was disastrous. [Source: J. A. S. Evans, New Catholic Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia.com]

According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: “Marcus Aurelius' devotion to duty, protecting the frontiers of the empire, was in marked contrast to the behavior of his son, Commodus. In 180 A.D., Commodus abruptly abandoned the campaigns on the German frontier and returned to Rome. There, however, he alienated the Senate by resorting to government by means of favorites and identifying himself with the semidivine hero Hercules. By the time of his assassination in 192 A.D., Rome was in a chaotic state of affairs. [Source: Department of Greek and Roman Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2000, metmuseum.org \^/]

Commodus

Commodus (ruled A.D. 177- 192, co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius from 177-180) was the vainglorious son of Marcus Aurelius who was assassinated in 192, ending the Antonine dynasty. He fancied himself as a great gladiator and battled opponents armed with lead swords that bent when they struck the emperor. Not surprisingly he ran up an impressive string of victories. Commodus finally lost on New Year's Eve, when he was strangled to death by a wrestler who had been dispatched by his rivals.

Edward Gibbons called him a man of “monstrous vices” and “unprovoked cruelty” and wrote: “His hours were spent in a seraglio of three hundred beautiful women, and as many boys, of every rank, and of every province; and whenever the arts of seduction proved ineffectual, the brutal lover had recourse to violence." Fearing for their lives, members of Commodus's court decided he had to go. A concubine slipped some poison into his wine and then a wrestler strangled him.

One of the Oxyrhynchus papyri records that an Egyptian of the name of Appianus, hymnasiarch and priest of Alexandria, had the pride and audacity to stage such a scene with Commodus who had just sentenced him to death. The emperor had barely pronounced the sentence when Appianus rose in scandalous defiance: "Do you realise whom you are addressing?" asked Commodus. "Certainly; a tyrant." "Not so," retorted Commodus, "you are speaking to the emperor." "Certainly not," was the reply. "Your father, the divine Marcus Aurelius Antoninus had every right to call himself emperor, because he cultivated wisdom, despised money, and loved what was good. But you have no such right, for you are the antithesis of your father: you love tyranny, vice, and brutality." [Source: “Daily Life in Ancient Rome: the People and the City at the Height the Empire” by Jerome Carcopino, Director of the Ecole Franchise De Rome Member of the Institute of France, Routledge 1936]

Commodus: the Gladiator

Commodus was the emperor depicted in the film Gladiator. He occasionally appeared in the arena during gladiator battles. He never put his life in danger and battled gladiators; instead he liked to decapitate ostriches with crescent-headed arrows. The crowds liked the show. They cheered and roared with laughter as the ostrich continued to run around after their heads were cut off. Once Commodus chopped off the head of an ostrich, and brandished its bloodied head and told senators the same fate awaited them if they went against him. Commodus enjoyed slaughtering other animals. He reportedly killed more than 100 bears in a single day.

Joaquin Phoenix playing Commodus in the film "Gladiator"

Andrew Fitzgerald wrote for Listverse: “Commodus enjoyed battling gladiators as often as possible. A narcissistic egomaniac, Commodus saw himself as the greatest and most important man in the world. He believed himself to be Hercules—even going so far as to don a leopard skin like that famously worn by the mythological hero. But in the arena, Commodus usually fought against gladiators who were armed with wooden swords, and slaughtered wild animals that were tethered or injured. [Source: Andrew Fitzgerald, Listverse April 2, 2013 ]

“As you could guess, most Romans therefore did not support Commodus. His antics in the arena were seen as disrespectful, and his predictable victories made for a poor show. In some instances, he captured disabled Roman citizens, and slaughtered them in the arena. As a testament to his narcissism, Commodus charged one million sesterces for every appearance—although he was never exactly “invited” to appear in the arena. Commodus was assassinated in AD 192, and it is believed that his actions as a “gladiator” encouraged his inner-circle to carry out the assassination.

In the movie Gladiator Marcus Aurelius was played by Richard Harris and Commodus was played by Joaquin Phoenix. Contrary to impression given by the movie, Aurelius did no try to restore the republic, he had no general name Maximus (the Russell Crow character) and he was not killed by his son Commodus although the historian Cassius Dion said he was killed by doctors who wanted to “do a favor” for Commodus (most historians believe he died of an illness).

Film: "Gladiator", directed by Ridley Scott and starring Russell Crowe.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons except Gladiator images, Pinterest

Text Sources: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Rome sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Late Antiquity sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; “Outlines of Roman History” by William C. Morey, Ph.D., D.C.L. New York, American Book Company (1901) ; “The Private Life of the Romans” by Harold Whetstone Johnston, Revised by Mary Johnston, Scott, Foresman and Company (1903, 1932); BBC Ancient Rome bbc.co.uk/history/ ; Project Gutenberg gutenberg.org ; Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Live Science, Discover magazine, Archaeology magazine, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP, The New Yorker, Wikipedia, Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopedia.com and various other books, websites and publications.

Last updated October 2024