Olympia: Temples, Layout and the Statue of Zeus | Early European History And Religion

OLYMPIA

ruins of the Zeus Temple at Olympia

Olympia (10 kilometers from Pirgos in western Peloponnese) held its first competitions over 3000 years ago. The early events included wrestling, chariot racing and horse racing as well artistic and literary competitions. The prize given to the winners was a crown of olive branches that was always cut from the same tree. A common practice for the winners in his home town was to knock down the city walls.

Nestled in a verdant valley nourished by the Alpheios and Kladeos rivers and encircled by rolling hills, according to Reuters, “the sacred site of Olympia was once home to an array of buildings, grand temples, and various venues dedicated to the celebration of athletic competition. While the current dimensions of the site were well-documented, the precise expanse of ancient Olympia remains elusive due to the transformative effects of earthquakes, floods, and other natural events over the centuries. Landmarks included the Hill of Kronos. Structures were typical classical Greek buildings and temples with ochre and reddish-colored roofs. There was a surrounding forest. A hippodrome, an athletics track, and a meadow with spectator camps were the main sports sites.[Source Adolfo Arranz and Han Huang, Reuters, August 1, 2024]

According to UNESCO: “The site of Olympia, in a valley in the Peloponnesus, has been inhabited since prehistoric times. In the 10th century B.C., Olympia became a centre for the worship of Zeus. The Altis – the sanctuary to the gods – has one of the highest concentrations of masterpieces from the ancient Greek world. In addition to temples, there are the remains of all the sports structures erected for the Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia every four years beginning in 776 B.C. [Source: UNESCO World Heritage Site website =]

“The sanctuary of Olympia, in the North West of the Peloponnese, in the Regional Unit of Eleia (Elis), has been established in the valley created by the confluence of the Alpheios and Kladeos rivers in a natural setting of beauty and serenity. The Pan-Hellenic sanctuary has been established in the history of culture, as the most important religious, political and sports centre, with a history that dates back to the end of the Neolithic times (4th millennium B.C.). The famous sanctuary became the centre of worship of Zeus, the father of the twelve Olympian gods. For the Altis, the sacred grove and the centre of the sanctuary, some of the most remarkable works of art and technique have been created, constituting a milestone in the history of art. Great artists, such as Pheidias, have put their personal stamp of inspiration and creativity, offering unique artistic creations to the world. In this universal place, the Olympic Idea was born, making Olympia a unique universal symbol of peace and competition at the service of virtue. Here, too, prominence was given to the ideals of physical and mental harmony, of noble contest, of how to compete well, of the Sacred Truce; values, which remain unchanged in perpetuity. =

The sanctuary of the Altis contained one of the highest concentrations of masterpieces of the ancient Mediterranean world. Many have been lost, such as the Olympia Zeus, a gold-and-ivory cult statue which was probably destroyed by Pheidias between 438 and 430 B.C. and one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Other masterpieces have survived: large votive archaic bronzes, pedimental sculptures and metopes from the temple of Zeus, and the famous complex of Hermes by Praxiteles. These are all major works of sculpture and key references in the history of art. =

Olympia’s Importance

Zeus Temple in Olympia

According to UNESCO:“The influence of the monuments of Olympia has been considerable: the temple of Zeus, built in 470-457 B.C. is a model of the great Doric temples constructed in the Peloponnese, as well as in southern Italy and in Sicily during the 5th century B.C. ; the Nike by Paionios, sculptured circa 420 B.C. so lastingly influenced iconographic allegories of victory that neoclassic art of the 19th century is still much indebted to it; the Olympian Palaestra with reference to the Roman period, a square and an open space for athletes’ training as well as a place for their mental and physical preparation before the Games, is undoubtedly the typological reference made by Vitruvius in “De Architectura”. Its value as a standard in architecture is in any case indisputable. [Source: UNESCO World Heritage Site website =]

Olympia bears exceptional testimony to the ancient civilizations of Peloponnese, both in terms of duration and quality. The first human settlements date back to prehistoric times when the valley was occupied from 4000 to 1100 B.C. . Settlements and necropolises from the Bronze Age have been unearthed along the banks of the Alpheios river. The Middle Helladic and Mycenaean periods are represented at the site. Consecrated to Zeus, the Altis is a major sanctuary from the 10th century B.C. to the 4th century AD, corresponding to the zenith of Olympia, marked more specifically by celebration of the Olympic Games from 776 B.C. to 393 AD. A Christian settlement survived for a time at the site of the ruins of the great Pan-Hellenic sanctuary: discovery of the workshop of Pheidias under the remains of a Byzantine church is an outstanding indication of continuous human settlement, which was interrupted only in the 7th century AD, as a result of natural disasters. =

“Olympia is an outstanding example of a great Pan-Hellenic sanctuary of antiquity, with its multiple functions: religious, political and social. Ancient sanctuaries, such as the Pelopion and a row of Treasuries to the north at the foot of Kronion Hill, are present within the peribolus of the Altis, consecrated to the gods, alongside the principal temples of Zeus and Hera. All around the divine precinct are the structures used by the priests (Theokoleon) and the administration (Bouleuterion), as well as common buildings (Prytaneion), accommodation (Leonidaion and Roman hostel), residences for distinguished guests (Nero’s House), and all the sports structures used for the preparation and celebration of the Olympic Games: the stadium and the hippodrome to the east, and the thermal baths, the Palaestra and the Gymnasium to the south and west. =

“Olympia is directly and tangibly associated with an event of universal significance. The Olympic Games were celebrated regularly beginning in 776 B.C. . The Olympiad –the four-year period between two successive celebrations falling every fifth year- became a chronological measurement and system of dating used in the Greek world. However, the significance of the Olympic Games, where athletes benefitting from a three-month Sacred Truce came together from all the Greek cities of the Mediterranean world to compete, demonstrates above all the lofty ideals of Hellenic humanism: peaceful and loyal competition between free and equal men, who are prepared to surpass their physical strength in a supreme effort, with their only ambition being the symbolic reward of an olive wreath. The revival of the Olympic Games in 1896 through the efforts of Pierre de Coubertin illustrates the lasting nature of the ideal of peace, justice and progress, which is no doubt the most precious but also the most fragile feature of the world’s heritage. =

Layout of Olympia

Olympia is beautifully situated on a fertile plain, surrounded by mountains and forests with pines, oaks and olive trees ten miles from the sea. The Cladeus river used wind through Olympia but it changed course covering the valley with silt. A proper town was not really built until after the arrival of the Olympics. As the popularity of the Olympics grew so to did the town. The stadium was moved slightly from its original position and both the track and and spectator facilities were improved. A new temple of Zeus was built between the games in 476 B.C. and 456 B.C.

When you visit the archeological site of Olympia the first place you come to is the Prytaneion where the winners ceremonies took place. To the south is the Doric temple dedicated to the Hera, goddess of the Seasons. Special running races were held here that only virgins from Eleia were allowed to participate in. Nearby is a Temple dedicated to Zeus that used to house an ivory and gold statue of the god.

1) Northwest Propylon; 2) Prytaneion; 3) Philippeion; 4) Temple of Hera; 5) Pelopion; 6) Nymphaeum of Herodes Atticus; 7) Metroon; 8) Treasuries; 9) Crypt (arched way to the stadium); 10) Stadium; 11) Echo Stoa; 12) Building of Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II; 13) Hestia stoa; 14) Hellenistic building; 15) Temple of Zeus; 16) Altar of Zeus; 17) Ex-voto of Achaeans; 18) Ex-voto of Mikythos; 19) Nike of Paeonius; 20) Gymnasion; 21) Palaestra; 22) Theokoleon; 23) Heroon; 24) Pheidias' workshop and paleochristian basilica; 25) Baths of Kladeos; 26) Greek baths; 27) Hostels; 29) Leonidaion; 30) South baths; 31) Bouleuterion; 32) South stoa; 33) Villa of Nero; Treasuries I) Sicyon; II) Syracuse; III) Epidamnus; IV) Byzantium; V) Sybaris(?); VI) Cyrene(?); VII) Unidentified; VIII) Altar(?); IX) Selinunte; X) Metapontum; XI) Megara; XII) Gela

Another set of ruins located a short distance away includes the wrestling school, gymnasium and baths. At the foot of a small mountain small edifices were raised by each city-state to house jars which contained the blood of sacrificed animals. Next to this is a semicircular marble tank that held Olympia's water supply and near hear is the stadium where the events where held. It is possible to walk through the same tunnel used by the naked athletes as entered the stadium with up to 40,000 spectators cheering.

Gymnasium in Olympia

The arrangements of the gymnasium at Olympia, which probably dates from the end of the fourth or the beginning of the third century B.C., seem to have been simpler. We can distinguish two separate buildings — a smaller one, the actual palaestra, which has been almost entirely uncovered; and a larger, the large gymnasium, of which only a little has been excavated. Both lie close together, west of the sacred grove of Altis, near the banks of the Kladeos; it was, in fact, very common to place the gymnasia near running water, in order to have at hand the water so necessary for the baths. We do not, however, find any trace of those complicated bathing arrangements described by Vitruvius, and probably they did not become common till the Roman period. In the wrestling school of Olympia we can only trace one large bath, but still it is possible that there were more extensive arrangements in the larger gymnasium. [Source “The Home Life of the Ancient Greeks” by Hugo Blümner, translated by Alice Zimmern, 1895]

The wrestling school itself is a square, the sides of which measure about sixty-four yards each, surrounded with Doric arcades; on the south there is a long hall in the Ionic style; on the three other sides are also halls and little rooms, the purpose of which we cannot determine, connected with the inner court by doors or porticoes; on the north wall is the door connecting it with the south hall of the larger gymnasium. This latter was separated from the wrestling place, though, as a rule, this is an integral part, or even the center of the whole structure; it is oblong in form, and is surrounded by arcades on two or three sides.

The eastern hall extends to the length of 210½ yards. No doubt the exercises in jumping, running, throwing the discus and spear, took place here. The best-preserved ruins are those of Ephesus and Alexandria Troas, but even here we are obliged to be very arbitrary in our attempts at reconstruction. In any case it is certain that the gymnasia of the classic period gave sufficient opportunity for different kinds of athletic exercises, as well as for wrestling and the various contests, and also supplied places for recreation and comfortable repose from the fatigues of physical exertion.

Statue of Zeus at Olympia, One of the Seven Wonders of the World

Reputed to be 12.2 meters (40 feet) high and placed in the great temple of Zeus in 457 B.C., the Statue of Zeus at Olympia depicted Zeus seated on a throne. His body was carved from ivory and his robe and ornaments were made of gold. It was sculpted by Phidias (who created a similar statue of Athena in the Parthenon in Athens) sometime after 432 B.C. The statue was so large that, according to the geographer Strabo, if Zeus stood up, his head would go through the roof. The craftsmanship was incredibly detailed, with intricate carvings and embellishments, including precious gemstones for his eyes. The gargantuan statue awed the ancient world for eight centuries and then disappeared — what happened to it is still not known. [Source: Mireia Movellán Luis, National Geographic History, December 15, 2023]

The statue of Zeus was made of gold and ivory plates placed over a wood structure (making it from bronze and gold would have been too heavy for a statue of this size). A system of pipes was devised to bring oil to the wood to prevent it from rotting, The oil also helped preserve the ivory. Zeus sat on the golden throne with jewels for eyes, with his feet resting on a foot stool of gold. Worshippers used to pray at the statue’s feet. Chroniclers said the statue was still there in the 2nd century B.C. After that it disappeared, most likely it was stripped and looted.

The original Temple of Zeus was destroyed in A.D. 426. The new temple one that housed the statue was 32 meters wide, 75 meters long and and 12 meters high, It was made of the finest marble and topped by a gilded statue of Nike. Sculpted lion heads with their mouths open served as drain spouts for the Temple of Zeus roof.

Zeus Statue at Olympia Zeus Temple

Background Behind the Statue of Zeus

Long before the Statue of Zeus, the first Olympic Games, part of a festival honoring Zeus, were held in the Greek city-state of Elis in 776 B.C. In ancient Greece, Zeus was the supreme deity, maintained order and harmony among the other gods and ensuring justice and overseeing the mortal world. Every four years, athletes and spectators from across Greece gathered in Elis at Olympia for the ancient Olympics.Mireia Movellán Luis wrote in National Geographic History: That is, until the sixth century B.C., when both Elis and neighboring Pisa contended to control the games and all the political and economic benefits that came with it. Fierce battles and raids led to instability and disruption throughout the region until 464 B.C., when at long last Elis claimed victory. To celebrate its triumph, Elis embarked on the construction of a grand temple that would honor Zeus, using spoils won in the war. [Source:Mireia Movellán Luis, National Geographic History, December 15, 2023]

Local architect Libon was chosen to build the temple in 460 B.C. A coat of fine white stucco was applied over the sturdy limestone base of the massive Doric temple. Six columns fronted the structure, with 13 running along the sides. A second floor wrapped around the central nave, accessed by stairs ascending from each side of the main door. Depicting myths and characters from Greek lore, sculptures decorated the temple. Many have survived and are on display in the National Archaeological Museum in Athens. Friezes of the chariot race between Pelops and Oenomaus were represented in the front gable, and the battle of the Lapiths and the Centaurs at the wedding of Pirithous decorated the back gable. Metopes depicted the 12 labors of Hercules. All are masterful works of classical sculpture, though their artist remains unknown. But the pièce de résistance appeared inside the temple itself.

Phidias, a well-known artist and architect of the time, was commissioned to make the temple’s most important work: a giant statue of Zeus enthroned. His grand plans for Zeus relied on a technique known as chryselephantine, in which smooth ivory and glistening gold are placed over wood. Phidias was famous for designing colossal figures using the application; among his most celebrated, created at around the same time as the Zeus statue, was the towering sculpture dedicated to Athena in the Parthenon of Athens.

Greek artisans typically worked ivory on a small scale. Ivory is a difficult material to manipulate. Unrolling the different layers of dentin that compose an elephant’s tusk to mold the resulting material requires skill and expertise. Exactly which technique Phidias used to manipulate the ivory plates on such an ambitious scale is uncertain. Writing in the second century A.D. the Greek geographer Pausanias says that Phidias applied heat to the ivory to soften it. Other sources claim he moistened the ivory, perhaps with vinegar or beer, before working with it.

Making the Statue of Zeus

Mireia Movellán Luis wrote in National Geographic History: Phidias’s Olympia workshop, divided into three naves by two rows of columns, had the same dimensions as the cella in the Temple of Zeus, where the sculpture would be housed. In this way, the correct proportions were ensured. Phidias meticulously sculpted the details of Zeus’s face, body, and other features, refining his expression, hair, beard, and drapery to bring the statue to life. Various materials, including precious stones and colored glass, were used to enhance the statue. When it was complete, the statue would have been polished to a smooth and lustrous finish, allowing the gold and ivory to shine brilliantly. [Source: Mireia Movellán Luis, National Geographic History, December 15, 2023]

While some details of construction were recorded, the statue’s exact height is unknown. Historical accounts, such as geographer Strabo’s in the first century B.C., recorded the statue’s hulking first impression. Strabo wrote: “If Zeus arose and stood erect, he would unroof the temple.” Modern scholars, based on archaeology and inference, believe it stood about 40 feet high. Its stone base, measuring some 20 by 32 feet, was made of black Eleusinian marble.

When it was finished, the statue was resplendent. Pausanias’s Description of Greece contains a glowing description: The god sits on a throne, and he is made of gold and ivory. On his head lies a garland which is a copy of olive shoots. In his right hand he carries a Victory, which, like the statue, is made of ivory and gold; she wears a ribbon and — on her head — a garland. In the left hand of the god is a scepter, ornamented with every kind of metal, and the bird sitting on the scepter is the eagle. The god’s sandals are also made of gold, as is his robe. On his robe are carved figures of animals and the flowers of the lily.

Statue of Zeus Glowed like a God

Phidias' workshop at Olympia

Mireia Movellán Luis wrote in National Geographic History: Pausanias also reported how the statue was anointed with olive oil, which also served to protect the ivory exterior and the wooden interior. Around the base of the statue, a raised lip allowed the oil to collect around the base of the statue and form a pool. The statue’s reflection in the liquid made it seem all the larger. [Source: Mireia Movellán Luis, National Geographic History, December 15, 2023]

Pausanias’s account reveals how impressive the Statue of Zeus might have been to behold in person, but scholars are still pondering how it was viewed inside the temple. The statue’s white ivory and sparkling gold would hardly seem as magnificent in a darkened chamber. Symbolically a god’s house, Greek temples were open spaces, but the interior needed light during the day. How was the room lit?

Countless solutions have been proposed to explain how the statue was illuminated. It is difficult to imagine artificial light, such as lamps, candles, or torches, as the main source, since such an enormous number of them would have been necessary to light such a large space. It has also been suggested that open skylights might have graced the roof, but this solution would have left the interior exposed to weather and rain.

The Zeus statue presented another issue. Because of its size, the upper portion rose above the level of the entranceway, so direct light from the doorway could not shine up-on Zeus’s head. Moreover, light would have entered the door only at sunrise. By midday, the sun would have been too high for rays to directly light the cella.

Recent studies with ultraviolet lights and lasers have shown that thin translucent marble tiles on the roof, placed on a wooden frame, may have allowed dim but constant sunlight to enter throughout the day. This solution would have offered enough light to showcase the temple’s interior and statue while still protecting them from the elements.

Statue of Zeus — a Major Tourist Attraction Until it Vanished

Mireia Movellán Luis wrote in National Geographic History: With the completion of the temple and its magnificent statue, the previously small sanctuary at Elis became one of the most important religious centers in ancient Greece. Appearing on coins across the ancient world, the monumental Zeus reigned as one of the most famous statues in antiquity and became the main sculptural model for seated gods. (Artists working millennia later would continue to imitate Zeus’s pose and gestures in many works of art.) [Source: Mireia Movellán Luis, National Geographic History, December 15, 2023]

Quatremère de Quincy (1815)

Visitors from all over the ancient world came to Olympia for not only the games but also the craftsmanship and ambition embodied by the Statue of Zeus. Sometime between the second and first centuries B.C., writers began compiling lists of must-see sights around the Mediterranean. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of these seven ancient wonders listed by writers such as Herodotus, Antipater of Sidon, and Philo of Byzantium.

The statue’s popularity continued well into Roman times. The spread of Christianity in the fourth century A.D. became its biggest threat. Roman emperor Theodosius I outlawed pagan cults in 391 A.D., ordering all ancient sanctuaries to be abandoned — including Olympia’s. He also banned the Olympic Games, since it was a polytheistic festival. The sanctuary at Olympia fell into disuse and eventually into ruin.

The statue, however, met a different fate. Aeunuch in Theodosius II’s court had it moved to Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), then the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Statue of Zeus was kept in the collection of “pagan antiquities” in the Palace of Lausus. From then, the statue’s ultimate fate is unknown. Conflicting reports say it was destroyed by fire or perhaps lost in an earthquake. But by the end of the fifth century, the Statue of Zeus was no more. After 800 years of existence, Phidias’s prodigious sculpture perished, but it has not been forgotten.

Temple of Hera at Olympia

Jarrat A. Lobell wrote in Archaeology magazine: “The temple of Hera at Olympia, or the Heraion, dates to around 600 B.C. and is one of the oldest surviving Greek stone Doric temples. In his Description of Greece, the second-century A.D. traveler Pausanias describes legendary events that, along with actual stylistic attributes of the Heraion, led Wilhelm Dörpfeld — a German archaeologist working in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and the scholar most closely associated with the structure — to date the original building to 1096 B.C. However, while there is evidence of ritual activity at Olympia dating back to the eleventh century B.C., there were no permanent large structures at this early date. And even when the Olympics first took place, probably well after the traditional date of 776 B.C., there were likely no sizeable buildings at the site.[Source: Jarrat A. Lobell, Archaeology magazine, September-October 2016]

“Located in the north part of the Altis, Olympia’s sacred precinct, the Heraion is probably the site’s first monumental stone building. Dörpfeld dug trenches under the temple and found two structures he interpreted as predecessors. But scholars today no longer believe there were in fact any previous buildings on this spot, and that what Dörpfeld had actually uncovered was the Heraion’s foundation. “The Heraion is actually very well preserved,” says Phil Sapirstein, who teaches at University of Nebraska-Lincoln, “and doesn’t appear to have been significantly altered or renovated after its construction, despite its thousand-year history of use. It’s one of the very few of these early buildings we can date from stratigraphic and not just stylistic evidence.” The temple is also the first well-preserved peripteral Doric temple — that is, having columns completely surrounding it. “This is an important moment in Greek architecture,” says Sapirstein. “The fact that the Heraion’s columns are made of stone, which is expensive and labor intensive, signifies a major expansion of the investment the Greeks put into building a monumental structure.”

“What is equally as significant as the existence of the stone columns is the long-accepted narrative about them. “The big story about the Heraion is that its columns were originally made of wood and gradually replaced with stone,” explains Sapirstein. “This fits with the time-honored idea that the Doric order was first developed in wood.” The concept of the wooden columns is mostly drawn not from archaeological evidence, but from Dörpfeld. Dörpfeld was a stalwart supporter of what is termed tectonic theory, an idea developed in the mid-nineteenth century that in ancient architecture form follows function. For Dörpfeld this meant that the Heraion would not have evolved in stone the way it did if it had not been conceived of and made from wood — that is, the function of the original elements determined how they would appear in wood, and thus how the same elements would appear in stone.

Temple of Hera at Olympia at night

Was Olympia Destroyed by Tsunamis?

Archaeology magazine reported: Olympia is commonly thought to have been destroyed by an earthquake and covered by river floods. A geoarchaeological study published in 2011 examined deep deposits of sand and other material over the ancient cult site — more, the researchers say, than could have been deposited by local rivers. The sediment also holds the remains of sea creatures, such as mollusks and foraminifera, meaning that repeated tsunamis may have been the culprit. [Source: Archaeology magazine, November-December 2011]

The Olympics ended in A.D. 393 but Olympia remained inhabited for another 150, destroyed around A.D. 551. Researcher Dr. Andreas Vött, an author the study wrote: “Both the composition and thickness of the sediments we find in Olympia do not go with the hydraulic potential of the Kladeos River and the geomorphological inventory of the valley. It is highly unlikely that this could have been the work of this creek." [Source: Alasdair Wilkins, io9.gizmodo.com, July 11, 2011]

According to Gizmodo: An expert on ancient tsunamis, Vött says these monstrous waves likely hit Olympia over and over again, eventually burying it in the thick sediments that modern archaeologists found in under in the 19th century. Vött says there's little doubt the sediment came from the sea, considering the abundant presence of mollusk and gastropod shells as well as various marine microorganisms. The arrangement of the city's ruins also tell a story. Vött points to the Temple of Zeus.If the city had been destroyed in an earthquake, the temple ruins would have crumbled all on top of each other. Instead, the ruins are "floating" in the sediment, as though they were ripped apart by powerful bursts of water and then scattered.

These tsunamis must have been very powerful — Olympia used to lie thirty kilometers inland, eight kilometers more than its present position. What's more, the site itself lies about 33 meters above sea level. The tremendous waves were probably helped along by the surrounding geography, in which water could flow through the surrounding hills via low-lying saddles and thus accumulate in the vicinity of the city-state.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons, The Louvre, The British Museum

Text Sources: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Greece sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Hellenistic World sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; BBC Ancient Greeks bbc.co.uk/history/; Canadian Museum of History, Perseus Project - Tufts University; perseus.tufts.edu ; MIT Classics Online classics.mit.edu ; Gutenberg.org, Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Live Science, Discover magazine, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, Encyclopædia Britannica, "The Discoverers" and "The Creators" by Daniel Boorstin. "Greek and Roman Life" by Ian Jenkins from the British Museum, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP and various books and other publications.

Last updated September 2024