Evolution of Intelligence in Our Human Ancestors | Early European History And Religion

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EARLY MODERN HUMAN INTELLIGENCE

Scientists believe that early modern humans had probably developed complex spears and to do this would have required the expression of ideas, communication skills, the use symbols and being self aware.

On clothes, intelligence and early modern humans, anthropologist Andrew Strathern wrote, "What people wear, and what they do it and with their bodies in general, forms and important part of the flow of information — establishing, modifying, and commenting on major social categories such as age, sex and status, which are also defined in speech and in actions. Whatever the precise origins of clothing, then , they can be sought only within the general context of the development of social communications and of society itself."

The world's first calendar may be an eagle bone with rows of 14 or 15 notches made 30,000 years ago and found at Le Placard on the Dordogne River near Le Eyzies, France. The bone contains 69 mysterious marks and notches, including circles, crescents, arc and ear-shapes, that appear to be in synch with the phases of the moon. Fourteen and 15 days are roughly the interval between a new moon and a full moon. Some have suggested it may have helped women keep track of the menstrual cycle. Others say it may have been tabulating device Skeptic say it may just be a bone with a lot of scratches on it. Another contender for title of world's oldest calendar was is a 10,000-years -old carved pebble with 12 notches unearthed in Iraq.

Paleolithic archaeologist John Shea the State United Nations of New York in Stoneybrook told Archaeology magazine that early man “probably had a rudimentary conception of time similar our own — an understanding of the he past, an understanding of the future — and the ability to perceive the future in terns of contingencies, in terms of “if this, then that."

Websites and Resources on Hominins and Human Origins: Smithsonian Human Origins Program humanorigins.si.edu ; Institute of Human Origins iho.asu.edu ; Becoming Human University of Arizona site becominghuman.org ; Hall of Human Origins American Museum of Natural History amnh.org/exhibitions ; The Bradshaw Foundation bradshawfoundation.com ; Britannica Human Evolution britannica.com ; Human Evolution handprint.com ; University of California Museum of Anthropology ucmp.berkeley.edu; John Hawks' Anthropology Weblog johnhawks.net/ ; New Scientist: Human Evolution newscientist.com/article-topic/human-evolution

Homo Erectus Thinking and Language

At the 350,000-year-old site in Bilzingsleben, archaeologists found pieces of bone and smooth stones arranged in a 27-foot-wide circle. "They intentionally paved this area for cultural activities," Dietrich Mania off the University of Jena, told National Geographic. "We found here a large anvil of quartzite set between the horns of a huge bison. Near it were fractured human skulls."

Describing an elephant tibia engraved with a series a regular lines found at Bilzingsleben, Mania said, "Seven lines go in one direction, 21 go in the other. We have found other pieces of bone with cut lines that are also too regular to be accidental. They are graphic symbols. To us they are evidence of abstract thinking and human language." The tibia was dated at around 400,000 years ago. Scientists debate whether 400,000-year-old hominids were capable of symbolic thinking, often regarded as hallmark of language. If Mania's conjectures are correct, then ancient hominids could have been much more advanced than previously thought.

In Zambia, scientists found what they said were 350,000-year-old ocher crayons. If these crayons had in fact been used to make drawings or markings they could be regarded as the oldest known attempt to paint, suggests that early man attempted create art much earlier than people thought.

Some scientists have theorized that Homo erectus must have possessed some form of rudimentary language because it needed to communicate to organize hunts and pass on information about tool making. The parts of the Homo erectus brain associated with reasoning, symbolism and imagination though were relatively undeveloped. The frontal lobe, where complex thinking takes place in modern humans, was relatively small. The small hole in its vertebrae probably meant that not enough information was transferred from the brain to the lungs, neck and mouth to make speech possible.

Ann MacLarson, an anthropologist at Roehampton Institute in London, told National Geographic: "With simple grunts you can communicate a lot. But he couldn't have produced anything like modern speech."

What Makes Human Brains Different From Those of Other Hominins

In September 2022, scientists announced they had discovered a glitch in our DNA that may have helped set the minds of our ancestors apart from those of Neanderthals and other extinct hominins. The mutation, which arose in the past few hundred thousand years, appears to prodded the development of more neurons in the part of the brain involved in the most complex forms of thought, according to a study published in Science. “What we found is one gene that certainly contributes to making us human,” said Wieland Huttner, a neuroscientist at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics in Dresden, Germany, and one of the authors of the study. [Source: Carl Zimmer, New York Times, September 10, 2022]

Carl Zimmer wrote in the New York Times, “The human brain allows us to do things that other living species cannot, such as using full-blown language and making complicated plans for the future. For decades, scientists have been comparing the anatomy of our brain with that of other mammals to understand how those sophisticated faculties evolved. The most obvious feature of the human brain is its size — four times as large as that of chimpanzees, our closest living relatives.Our brain also has distinctive anatomical features. The region of the cortex just behind our eyes, known as the frontal lobe, is essential for some of our most complex thoughts. According to a study from 2018, the human frontal lobe has far more neurons than the same region in chimpanzees does.

markings on the Ishango bone

But comparing humans with living apes has a serious shortcoming: Our most recent common ancestor with chimpanzees lived roughly 7 million years ago. To fill in what happened in since then, scientists have had to resort to fossils of our more recent ancestors, known as hominins. Inspecting hominin skulls, paleoanthropologists have found that the brains of our ancestors dramatically increased in size starting about 2 million years ago. They reached the size of living humans by about 600,000 years ago. Neanderthals, among our closest extinct hominin relatives, had brains as big as ours.

But Neanderthal brains were elongated, whereas humans have a more spherical shape. Scientists can’t say what accounts for those differences. One possibility is that various regions of our ancestors’ brains changed size. In recent years, neuroscientists have begun investigating ancient brains with a new source of information: bits of DNA preserved inside hominin fossils. Geneticists have reconstructed entire genomes of Neanderthals as well as their eastern cousins, the Denisovans.

Genes That Make Human Brains Different

Carl Zimmer wrote in the New York Times: Scientists have zeroed in on potentially crucial differences between our genome and the genomes of Neanderthals and Denisovans. Human DNA contains about 19,000 genes. The proteins encoded by those genes are mostly identical to those of Neanderthals and Denisovans. But researchers have found 96 human-specific mutations that changed the structure of a protein. [Source: Carl Zimmer, New York Times, September 10, 2022]

In 2017, Anneline Pinson, a researcher in Huttner’s lab, was looking over that list of mutations and noticed one that altered a gene called TKTL1. Scientists have known that TKTL1 becomes active in the developing human cortex, especially in the frontal lobe. “We know that the frontal lobe is important for cognitive functions,” Pinson said. “So that was a good hint that it could be an interesting candidate.” Pinson and her colleagues did initial experiments with TKTL1 in mice and ferrets. After injecting the human version of the gene into the developing brains of the animals, they found that it caused the mice and ferrets to make more neurons.

Next, the researchers carried out experiments on human cells, using bits of fetal brain tissue obtained through the consent of women who had abortions at a Dresden hospital. Pinson used molecular scissors to snip out the TKTL1 gene from the cells in the tissue samples. Without it, the human brain tissue produced fewer so-called progenitor cells that give rise to neurons. For their final experiment, the researchers set out to create a miniature Neanderthal-like brain. They started with a human embryonic stem cell, editing its TKTL1 gene so that it no longer had the human mutation. It instead carried the mutation found in our relatives, including Neanderthals, chimpanzees and other mammals.

They then put the stem cell in a bath of chemicals that coaxed it to turn into a clump of developing brain tissue, called a brain organoid. It generated progenitor brain cells, which then produced a miniature cortex made of layers of neurons. The Neanderthal-like brain organoid made fewer neurons than did organoids with the human version of TKTL1. That suggests that when the TKTL1 gene mutated, our ancestors could produce extra neurons in the frontal lobe. While this change did not increase the overall size of our brain, it might have reorganized its wiring. “This is really a tour de force,” said Laurent Nguyen, a neuroscientist at the University of Liège in Belgium who was not involved in the study.

The new finding does not mean that TKTL1, on its own, offers the secret to what makes us human. Other researchers are also looking at the list of 96 protein-changing mutations and are running organoid experiments of their own. Other members of Huttner’s lab reported in July that two other mutations change the pace at which developing brain cells divide. Last year, a team of researchers at the University of California San Diego found that another mutation appears to change the number of connections human neurons make with each other.

Other mutations may also turn out to be important to our brains. For example, as the cortex develops, individual neurons need to migrate in order to find their proper place. Nguyen observed that some of the 96 mutations unique to humans altered genes that are likely involved in cell migration. He speculates that our mutations may make our neurons move differently than neurons in a Neanderthal’s brain.

When and How Did Prehistoric Hominin Learn to Count?

Archaeological discoveries suggest that hominins developed numbers tens of thousands of years ago and modern humans weren’t the first to do it. Particularly intriguing are markings made on a hyena bone by a Neanderthal that appear to have recorded numerical information. Colin Barras wrote in Nature: Some 60,000 years ago, in what is now western France, a Neanderthal picked up a chunk of hyena femur and a stone tool and began to work. When the task was complete, the bone bore nine notches that were strikingly similar and approximately parallel, as if they were meant to signify something.[Source: Colin Barras, Nature, June 2 2021]

Some scientists believe the notches cut into this baboon bone 40,000 years ago was an early form of counting

Francesco d’Errico, an archaeologist at the University of Bordeaux, France, has an idea about the marks. He has examined many ancient carved artefacts during his career, and he thinks that the hyena bone — found in the 1970s at the site of Les Pradelles near Angoulême — stands out as unusual. Although ancient carved artefacts are often interpreted as artworks, the Les Pradelles bone seems to have been more functional, says D’Errico. He argues that it might encode numerical information. And if that’s correct, anatomically modern humans might not have been alone in developing a system of numerical notations: Neanderthals might have begun to do so, too.

When D’Errico published his ideas in 2018, he was venturing into territory that few scientists had explored: the ancient roots of numbers. “The origin of numbers is still a relatively vacant niche in scientific research,” says Russell Gray, an evolutionary biologist at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. Researchers don’t even agree, at times, on what numbers are, although a 2017 study defined them as discrete entities with exact values that are represented by symbols in the form of words and signs.

Counting by Animals

Colin Barras wrote in Nature: Although researchers once thought that humans were the only species with a sense of quantity, studies since the mid-twentieth century have revealed that many animals share the ability. For instance, fish, bees and newborn chicks can instantly recognize quantities up to four, a skill known as subitizing. Some animals are also capable of ‘large-quantity discrimination’: they can appreciate the difference between two large quantities if they are distinct enough. Creatures with this skill could, for example, distinguish 10 objects from 20 objects, but not 20 from 21. Six-month-old human infants also show a similar appreciation of quantity, even before they have had significant exposure to human culture or language. [Source: Colin Barras, Nature, June 2 2021]

What all of this suggests, says Andreas Nieder, a neuroscientist at the University of Tübingen, Germany, is that humans have an innate appreciation of numbers. That arose through evolutionary processes such as natural selection, he says, because it would have carried adaptive benefits. Others interpret the evidence differently. Rafael Núñez, a cognitive scientist at the University of California, San Diego, and one of the leaders of QUANTA — Evolution of Cognitive Tools for Quantification (QUANTA), an effort to study when, why and how number systems appeared and spread around the world — accepts that many animals might have an innate appreciation of quantity. However, he argues that the human perception of numbers is typically much more sophisticated, and can’t have arisen through a process such as natural selection. Instead, many aspects of numbers, such as the spoken words and written signs that are used to represent them, must be produced by cultural evolution — a process in which individuals learn through imitation or formal teaching to adopt a new skill (such as how to use a tool).

Although many animals have culture, one that involves numbers is essentially unique to humans. A handful of chimpanzees have been taught in captivity to use abstract symbols to represent quantities, but neither chimps nor any other non-human species use such symbols in the natural world. Núñez suggests that a distinction should therefore be made between what he has dubbed the innate ‘quantical’ cognition seen in animals and the learnt ‘numerical’ cognition seen in humans.

But not everyone agrees. Nieder argues that neurological studies show clear similarities between the way in which quantities are processed in the brains of non-human animals and how the human brain processes numbers. He says that it is misleading to draw too firm a line between the two behaviours, although he agrees that human numerical abilities are much more advanced than those of any other animal. “No [non-human] animal is able to truly represent number symbols,” he says.

60,000-year-old markings on this hyena bone by a Neanderthal may have been a form of counting

Study of the 60,000-Year-Old Neanderthal Notched Hyena Bone

Colin Barras wrote in Nature: D’Errico’s analysis of the Les Pradelles bone could help to provide some insights into how the earliest stages of number systems took shape. He studied the nine notches under a microscope, and says that their shapes, depths and other details are so alike that all seem to have been made using the same stone tool, held in the same way. This suggests that all were made by one individual in a single session lasting perhaps a few minutes or hours. (At some other time, eight much shallower marks were carved on the bone, too.)[Source: Colin Barras, Nature, June 2 2021]

However, D’Errico doesn’t think that this individual intended to produce a decorative pattern because the marks are uneven. For comparison, he has analysed the seven notches on a 40,000-year-old raven bone from a site of Neanderthal occupation in Crimea. Statistical analysis shows that the notches on this bone are spaced with the same sort of regularity seen when modern volunteers are given a similar bone and asked to mark it with equally spaced notches. But this type of analysis also shows that the marks on the Les Pradelles bone lack such regularity. That observation — and the fact that the notches were generated in a single session — led D’Errico to consider that they might have been merely functional, providing a record of numerical information.

The Les Pradelles bone is not an isolated find. For instance, during excavations at Border Cave in South Africa, archaeologists discovered an approximately 42,000-year-old baboon fibula that was also marked with notches. Moreover, he says that discoveries over the past 20 years show that ancient humans began producing abstract engravings, which hint at sophisticated cognition, hundreds of thousands of years earlier than was once thought. In the light of these discoveries, D’Errico has developed a scenario to explain how number systems might have arisen through the very act of producing such artefacts. His hypothesis is one of only two published so far for the prehistoric origin of numbers.

It all started by accident, he suggests, as early hominins unintentionally left marks on bones while they were butchering animal carcasses. Later, the hominins made a cognitive leap when they realized that they could deliberately mark bones to produce abstract designs — such as those seen on an approximately 430,000-year-old shell found in Trinil, Indonesia. At some point after that, another leap occurred: individual marks began to take on meaning, with some of them perhaps encoding numerical information. The Les Pradelles hyena bone is potentially the earliest known example of this type of mark-making, says D’Errico. He thinks that with further leaps, or what he dubs cultural exaptations, such notches eventually led to the invention of number signs such as 1, 2 and 3.

D’Errico acknowledges that there are gaps in this scenario. It isn’t clear what cultural or social factors might have encouraged ancient hominins to begin marking bones or other artefacts deliberately, or to then harness those marks to record numerical information. QUANTA will use data from anthropology, cognitive science, linguistics and archaeology to better understand those social factors, says D’Errico, who is one of the project’s four principal investigators.

Lebombo Bone: World’s Oldest Math Tool

Lebombo bone marks

The 43,000-year-old Lebombo Bone — a kind of tally stick — found in Swaziland is oldest known mathematical object According to CNN: “The Lebombo Bone is essentially a Baboon fibula that has tally marks on it.... It is conjectured to have been used for tracking menstrual cycles, because it has 29 marks on it.

In the 1970’s during the excavations of Border Cave, a small piece of the fibula of a baboon, the Lebombo bone, was found marked with 29 clearly defined notches, and, at 37,000 years old, it ranks with the oldest mathematical objects known. The bone is dated approximately 35,000 BC and resembles the calendar sticks still in use by Bushmen clans in Namibia. The closest town to the Lebombo Mountains is Siteki, renowned for its Inyanga and Sangoma School, a government school to train healers and diviners. [Source: CNN, November 15, 2012]

Changes in the section of the notches indicate the use of different cutting edges, which the bone's discoverer, Peter Beaumont, views as evidence for their having been made, like other markings found all over the world, during participation in rituals. The bone is between 44,200 and 43,000 years old, according to 24 radiocarbon datings. This is far older than the Ishango bone with which it is sometimes confused. Other notched bones are 80,000 years old but it is unclear if the notches are merely decorative or if they bear a functional meaning. [Source: Wikipedia +]

According to The Universal Book of Mathematics the Lebombo bone's 29 notches suggest "it may have been used as a lunar phase counter, in which case African women may have been the first mathematicians, because keeping track of menstrual cycles requires a lunar calendar". However, the bone is clearly broken at one end, so the 29 notches may or may not be a minimum number. In the cases of other notched bones since found globally, there has been no consistent notch tally, many being in the 1–10 range. +

Colin Barras wrote in Nature: D’Errico suspects that anatomically modern humans living there at the time used the bone to record numerical information. In the case of this bone, microscopic analysis of its 29 notches suggests they were carved using four distinct tools and so represent four counting events, which D’Errico thinks took place on four separate occasions. [Source: Colin Barras, Nature, June 2 2021]

Ishango Bone: 20,000 Baboon Bone Calculator from the Congo

Named after the place where it was found in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the Ishango bone is a bone tool described as the world’s oldest calculator and the world’s first mathematical device. Dated to the Upper Paleolitic period, between 22,000 and 20,000 years ago, Ishango bone is a dark brown bone, likely the fibula of a baboon, with a sharp piece of quartz affixed to one end for engraving. Belgian geologist Jean de Heinzelin de Braucourt found the bone in 1960 buried in layers of volcanic ashes on the shores of Lake Edward in the Ishango region in DRC, near the border with Uganda. The volcanic ash made it relatively easy to date. [Source: : Dr. Y., African Heritage, August 29, 2013, Wikipedia ~]

The Ishango bone is actually two baboon bones, one 10 centimeters and the other 14 centimeters long, with several incisions on each of their faces. The smallest of the two bones was the first to be discovered. Its existence was announced by the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences in Brussels This bone has several incisions organized in groups of three columns. I) The left column is divided in four groups, respectively possessing 19, 17, 13, and 11 notches, adding up to a total of 60 notches. The numbers 11, 13, 17 and 19 are the four prime numbers between 10 and 20. This constitutes a quad of prime numbers. II) The central column is divided in groups of 8 with some debate over how many notches there are (in the parenthesis, is the maximum number): 7 (8), 5 (7), 5 (9), 10, 8 (14), 4 (6), 6, 3. The minimal sum is 48, while the maximal sum is 63. III) The right column is divided into four groups, respectively possessing 9, 19, 21, and 11 notches, adding up to a total of 60. The second bone has not been well-studied. However, we know that it is composed of 6 groups of 20, 6, 18, 6, 20, and 8 notches. ~

According to the African Heritage blog: “The first bone has been subject to a lot of interpretation. At first, it was thought to be just a tally stick with a series of tally marks, but scientists have demonstrated that the groupings of notches on the bone are indicative of a mathematical understanding which goes beyond simple counting. In fact, many believe that the notches follow a mathematical succession. The notches have been interpreted as a prehistoric calculator, or maybe a lunar calendar. Jean de Heinzellin was the first to consider the bone as a vestige of interest in the history of mathematics. For instance, he noted that the numbers in the left column were compatible with a numeration system based on 10, since he saw that: 21 = 20 + 1, 19 = 20 – 1, 11 = 10 +1, and 9 = 10 -1. These numbers are also prime numbers between 10 and 20: 11, 13, 17, 19.” ~

A Belgian physical engineer proposed that the bones were a slide rule. Alexander Marshack has argued that they are the oldest known lunar calendar on earth. Claudia Zaslavsky thinks that the Ishango bone maker was a woman following the lunar phases to calculate her menstrual cycle. The second bone appears to have no connection with lunar calendar theory, and favors more the numeration system. ~

Insights Into the Evolution of Counting from the Amazon Tribe with No Numbers

Pirahãs of Brazil

University of Miami associate professor Caleb Everett and other anthropologists working with an indigenous Amazonian people known as the Pirahã realized they had no words to identify any quantity, not even one. Lorraine Boissoneault wrote in Smithsonian magazine: Intrigued, the researchers developed further tests for the Pirahã adults, who were all mentally and biologically healthy. The anthropologists lined up a row of batteries on a table and asked the Pirahã participants to place the same number in a parallel row on the other side. When one, two or three batteries were presented, the task was accomplished without any difficulty. But as soon as the initial line included four or more batteries, the Pirahã began to make mistakes. As the number of batteries in the line increased, so did their errors. [Source: Lorraine Boissoneault, Smithsonian magazine, March 13, 2017]

The researchers realized something extraordinary: the Pirahã’s lack of numbers meant they couldn’t distinguish exactly between quantities above three. As Everett writes in his new book, Numbers and the Making of Us, “Mathematical concepts are not wired into the human condition. They are learned, acquired through cultural and linguistic transmission. And if they are learned rather than inherited genetically, then it follows that they are not a component of the human mental hardware but are very much a part of our mental software—the feature of an app we ourselves have developed.”

On insights gleaned from the Pirahã on how counting evolved, Everett told Smithsonian magazine: In most cases the invention probably started with this ephemeral realization [that you have five fingers on one hand], but if they don’t ascribe a word to it, that realization just passes very quickly and dies with them. It doesn’t get passed on to the next generation. I think the most likely scenario is one of coevolution. You develop numbers that allow you to trade in more precise ways. As that facilitates things like trade and agriculture, that puts pressure to invent more numbers. In turn those refined number systems are going to enable new kinds of trade and more precise maps, so it all feeds back on each other. It seems like a chicken and egg situation, maybe the numbers came first but they didn’t have to be there in a very robust form to enable certain kinds of behaviors. It seems like in a lot of cultures once people get the number five, it kickstarts them. Once they realize they can build on things, like five, they can ratchet up their numerical awareness over time. This pivotal awareness of “a hand is five things,” in many cultures is a cognitive accelerant.

The Pirahã have slash and burn techniques, but if you’re going to have systematic agriculture, they need more. If you look at the Maya and the Inca, they were clearly really reliant on numbers and mathematics. Numbers seem to be a gateway that are crucial and necessary for these other kinds of lifestyles and material cultures that we all share now but that at some point humans didn’t have. At some point over 10,000 years ago, all humans lived in relatively small bands before we started developing chiefdoms. Chiefdoms come directly or indirectly from agriculture. Numbers are crucial for about everything that you see around you because of all the technology and medicine. All this comes from behaviors that are due directly or indirectly to numbers, including writing systems. We don’t develop writing without first developing numbers.

Early Modern Human Language

Ishango bone

It is not known when language first emerged. According to some theories it emerged around 50,000 years and developed hand in hand with the development of behavioral modern human beings. Some believe this happened when some genetic change occurred allowing one group to develop speech and this group advanced, dominated other groups and multiplied.

Gregory D.S. Anderson, director of the Living Tongues Institute, told the Washington Post, “In the pre-agricultural state, the norm was to have lots and lots of little languages. As humans developed with agriculture, larger population groups were able to aggregate together, and you get large languages developing."

Scientists believe that Neanderthals may have had a spoken language based on the fact that they had hyoid bones---which hold up the voice box in modern humans---virtually identical to those in modern humans and a hypoglossal canal---a bony canal in the occipital bone of the skull theorized role to have a role in speech;. Christopher Stringer of the Natural History Museum of London told National Geographic, "They may not have had language as complex as ours. We have symbolism. They may not have all had all that, but at least they could talk to each other." Some scientists dismiss the presence of the hypoglossal canal as evidence of speech, pointing out that monkeys and apes have the same size canal. Neanderthals posses the same version of the gene FOXP2, which has been linked it speech and language, as humans.

The development of language appears to have a genetic component. A strong can be made that gene called FOXP2 is involved human language. When a certain mutation occurs to the gene humans lose their ability to make sense of language and produce coherent speech. The gene occurs across the animal kingdom, When FOXP2 is disrupted in birds, their songs are messed upped. With bats, it affects echolocation. How the gene affects language is not known. The amino acid sequence between humans and chimpanzees is the same, except in two of the 715 sequences, with a mutation possibly the key behind why humans have spoken language and chimps don’t.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons except hyena bone and baboon bone from Scientific American

Text Sources: National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Nature, Scientific American. Live Science, Discover magazine, Discovery News, Ancient Foods ancientfoods.wordpress.com ; Times of London, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek, BBC, The Guardian, Reuters, AP, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “History of Warfare” by John Keegan (Vintage Books); “History of Art” by H.W. Janson (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.), Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.

Last updated May 2024