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CHRISTIAN APOLOGISTS
Christian Apologist Arnobius of Sicca
Christian apologists defended their faith, often in terms taken from Greek philosophy, to a pagan Greco-Roman society. They tried to reconcile the perceived conflict between loyalty to Christ and loyalty to Caesar. Among the best known were Justin Martyr (c. 100–c. 165), Athenagoras (second century), and Origen (c. 185–c. 254).
Professor L. Michael White told PBS: “The tension felt by Christians over this issue of loyalty to the state — Is the state a part of God's plan? Can Christians participate in public affairs and public social life? — seems to be a growing concern as we move through the second and early part of the third century. This especially becomes the subject matter for a growing Christian literary activity. The group of writers that we tend to call the apologists. Now the apologists are known by that name because they wrote apologies. The Greek word "apologia" comes from the term for a defense speech in court. We have Plato's apology of Socrates which is Socrates' defense before the Athenian council. Before he's eventually executed. [Source: L. Michael White, Professor of Classics and Director of the Religious Studies Program University of Texas at Austin, Frontline, PBS, April 1998]
“So when Christians start to write apologies, what they're doing is a kind of legal defense before the public arena of debate of what it means to be a Christian. Is it legal? Is it not? Are they good? Are they bad? And so these Christian apologists really start to talk about Christianity from that perspective. It's a kind of defense, and there's always a kind of dilemma knowing how to read some of these documents. Some of them are actually addressed to the emperor himself, and if not the emperor, governors and other important officials but it's very unlikely that an emperor would actually have read one of these Christian documents.
“So who are they really writing for in these apologies? The answer is they're probably writing for Christians. These are written to Christians who are living in the society. In other words, for the very people who would have been encountering those pagan neighbors just across the street or just next-door, and the apologetic literature is a way of arming these Christians with the answers and the arguments that would allow them both to be a part of society and also to respond to the kinds of claims and charges made against Christians by their pagan neighbors. So what the apologetic tradition is showing us is Christians beginning to encounter at a very vibrant intellectual level the arguments and the social life of their pagan Roman world just nextdoor.”
Websites and Resources: Early Christianity: PBS Frontline, From Jesus to Christ, The First Christians pbs.org ; Elaine Pagels website elaine-pagels.com ; Sacred Texts website sacred-texts.com ; Gnostic Society Library gnosis.org ; Guide to Early Church Documents iclnet.org; Early Christian Writing earlychristianwritings.com ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Christian Origins sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; BBC on Christianity bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity ; Candida Moss at the Daily Beast Daily Beast Christian Classics Ethereal Library www.ccel.org; Saints and Their Lives Today's Saints on the Calendar catholicsaints.info ; Saints' Books Library saintsbooks.net ; Saints and Their Legends: A Selection of Saints libmma.contentdm ; Saints engravings. Old Masters from the De Verda collection colecciondeverda.blogspot.com ; Lives of the Saints - Orthodox Church in America oca.org/saints/lives ; Lives of the Saints: Catholic.org catholicism.org
Apostolic Fathers (Theologians of the Early A.D. 2nd Century)
Ignatius of Antioch
The Apostolic Fathers was a group of writers who had actually or allegedly been in touch with the apostles themselves. They flourished roughly between A.D. 100 and 150. Some characteristics: 1) accent on ethics/morality, or legalism; 2) repeat New Testament themes but do not elaborate on them; 3) reflect a developing hierarchical ministry; 4) important for New Testament canonical studies. [Source: Carl A. Volz, late professor of church history at Luther Seminary, web.archive.org, martin.luthersem.edu]
Ignatius of Antioch (Died c. AD 110): During the reign of Trajen (98―117) he was taken from Antioch to Rome in chains and martyred there. On the journey he wrote seven letters which we still have. Points of interest: 1) Clear expression of Christ's deity adn humanity. In this context he attacked Docetism and those who denied deity to Christ. (Judaisers). 2) The Eucharist is "the medicine of immortality," as well as "the flesh of our Savior, Jesus Christ." 3) The first to use the term "Catholic church" (Smyrnians 8:2) as well as "Eucharist," 4) Strong hierarchical and episcopal statements. "The bishop presides in the place of God." "Follow the bishop as you would follow Christ." 5) Strong desire for martyrdom
Polycarp of Smyrna (d. about AD 156): Eusebius says he sat at the feet of St. John (5:20:5). Bp. of Smyrna. In 155 AD he journeyed to Rome to discuss the Easter question with Bp. Anicetus - appealed to Ephesian/Johannine tradition. Irenaeus (3:3:4) relates that Marcion, when he met Polycarp, asked whether Polycarp recognized him. "Of course I recognize the firstborn of Satan."
Points of Interest of Polycarp: 1) Epistle to the Philippians; 2) Defends the Incarnation and reality of Crucifixion; 3) No mention is made of bishops - one must follow presbyters and deacons. Philippi may have been governed by a committee of elders.; 4) Almsgiving is earnestly recommended; 5) Pray for secular rulers, emperors. 6) Martyrdom of Polycarp Oldest extant account of a post-canonical martyr. "For eighty and six years I have been serving Him and He has done me no wrong. How then dare I blaspheme my King who has saved me?" Earliest evidence of the cult of martyrs - Feb. 22. "Day of birth." Prayer is Trinitarian and doxological.
Papias of Hierapolis (d. about AD 155): Irenaeus says he was a friend of Polycarp and had heard St. John preach (5:33:4). Eusebius says, "A man of very little intelligence as is clear from his books." Wrote "Explanation of the Sayings of the Lord." Significant for the oral tradition of the apostles. Millenialist - Eusebius says responsible for Irenaeus' milleanialism. "Mark was the interpreter of Peter," "Matthew composed his sayings in the Hebrew language." Best attestation for the canonicity of Mark. Important witness for oral tradition - collected the sayings of Jesus. Epistle of Barnabas (c. AD 130). Strongly anti-Jewish ― pre―existence of Christ ― Sunday instead of Sabbath ― Millenialist (chiliast). It is definitely not the Barnabas who was Paul's companion, anti-Jewish and un―Pauline bent ― Codex Sinaiticus reckoned it canonical ― so also Origen and ClAlexandria ― a date later than AD 138 cannot be defended.
Important Apostolic Texts and Doctrines from A.D. 2nd Century
Polycarp of Smyrna
First Clement (Clement of Rome): "Letter to the Corinthians" Codex Alexandrinus includes this as an inspired New Testament writing. Irenaeus claims Clement is the third successor of St. Peter as bishop of Rome. Date c. AD 96 under Emperor Damitian. Letter was occasioned by the troubles of the church at Corinth. Several younger members had rebelled against the presbyters and ousted them from office. When it became known to the Roman church it addressed this letter to the Corinthians.
Points of interest: 1) The letter itself causes difficulties. Does it indicate a spirit of rulership of Rome's bishop, or was Rome acting in good faith as a responsible church? A clear statement on a hierarchy in each church, based upon OT precedents. Idea of "apostolic succession." Bishops may not be deposed because they stand in a line of succession from the apostles. 2) Oldest witness to the persecution under Nero and the death of Peter and Paul in Rome. Only reference of Paul going to Spain. 3) Liturgical material ― a eucharistic prayer (?) ― appeal to nature to support resurrection and order in the church.
"Shepherd" of Hermas: A book of revelations granted to Hermas in Rome by two heavenly figures, an old woman and a shepherd (hence the title). Different parts were composed at different times before AD 150. The work is divided as follows: 5 Visions / 12 Precepts or Mandates / 10 Parables. There is no work of ancient Christian times extant in which the life of the community passes before us with such vividness as the Shepherd. We read of bishops, priests, and deacons who have administered their offices worthily, but also of proud and negligent clergy who incur God's judgment; of martyrs and apostates; the wealthy who despise the poor, and of hospitality; heretics and doubters; a great self―examination of the Roman church.
Points of interest: 1) The doctrine of penance, based on Hebrews 6:4―6. Hermas allows for one repentance after Baptism. Atonement is gained through fasting, almsgiving, and discipline. Holy Spirit is identified with the Son ― binitarian. He never uses the names of Jesus, Christ, or Son of God. 2) No one may be considered a Christian without Baptism. Christ's descant into Hades was to baptize all those who had missed it before, especially the OT patriarchs. A distinction is made between obligatory good works and those called supererogatory (over and above the requirements). 3) The Shepherd was held in high regard. Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Origen included it within the New Testament. Codex Sinaiticus included it.
Homily OF Clement (Second Clement): Clement not its author ― found appended to I Clement. Oldest Christian sermon outside the New Testament. Written c. AD 150. Points of interest: 1) Deity and humanity of Christ clearly expressed; 2) Doctrine of the church ― "she" existed before the creation of the sun and moon ― She was invisible, spiritual, and barren. Now she has become flesh, and she is the body of Christ. We have been given to the church as her children. 3) Baptism is the indispensable seal of the Christian. 4) Efficacy of good works for salvation ― "almsgiving removes the burden of sin."
The Didahe (Teaching of The Twelve): was discovered in 1873 in Constantinople. Dated before AD 150) is the earliest manual of church customs, liturgy, and constitution. It became a model for subsequent constitutions. Points of interest: 1) The first half ― Two Ways ― of Life and Death. "Do this and you shall live." 2) Second half is liturgical ― earliest post―canonical description of the Sacraments and Christian way of life. 3) Baptism ― immersion preferred, pouring permitted Fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays. 4) Lords Prayer said three times daily. 5) Daily confession of sins and weekly Eucharist. 6) Refers to Eucharist as "sacrifice" ― perhaps earliest Eucharistic Prayer. 7) On ministry ― prophets take precedence over bishop etc.
Greek Apologists of the A.D. Second Century
With the Greek apologists the literature of the church addresses itself for the first time to the outside world and enters the domain of culture and science. The "apologies" (i.e. defenses) were designed to answer the questions and criticisms of the more educated and sophisticated pagans, such as Lucian of Samosata (On the Death of Peregrini) 170 AD, Pronto (Oration), teacher of Marcus Aurelius; Celsus (True Discourse) 176 AD. [Source: Carl A. Volz, late professor of church history at Luther Seminary, web.archive.org, martin.luthersem.edu]
Martyrdom of Quadratus of Athens
In passing from the Apostolic Fathers to the Greek apologists of the second century, one enters a totally different atmosphere. We now witness the early encounters of Christianity with classical culture, and the various efforts of Christian thinkers to interpret the relationship between them. Some are willing to grant validity to the spark of truth that they believe can be found in papan philosophy, whereas others see no relationship between Christianity and Hellenism than a war to the bitter end. In their effort to present the Christian faith in such a manner that it may be understood by pagans, Christians find themselves forced to systematize their thought, so it can be said that the Apologists are the first systematic theologians of Christianity. Their main contribution is in their doctrine of the Logos, which opened the way to dialogue between Christian faith and classical culture. In general they look upon Christianity as a philosophy (or a doctrine). Christ is above all the teacher of a new morality or true philosophy.
The concept of God which the Apologists took from Hellenistic philosophy, and which emphasized the divine immutability, would long be a burden on Christian theology and would be a factor making more difficult the trinitarian and christological controversies of later centuries.
1) The Apologists challenged the common perceptions of Christians as being a threat to society/ Instead of being a peril to the state, they were its strongest supporters. They were chaste and honorable. 2) They exposed the absurdities and immoralities of the pagan gods and myths. Christianity possessed absolute truth, whereas paganism and philosophy had only partial truth. The best in pagan antiquity was due to the Logos and to Moses. Pagan philosophy prepared the way for Christ among the Greeks just as the Jews were prepared by the Old Testament prophets. A recurring theme in the Apologists is human free―will and the ability humans have to make free choices regarding good and evil. (Later Latin theology would emphasize that "we are in bondage to sin and cannot free ourselves.") 3) The Apologists were strong on the resurrection of the body. 4) They also left room for subordinationism, that is, understanding the Trinity as hierarchical, with the Son in second place after the Father.
The Greek Apologists aim at nothing less than presenting Christianity as the authentic heir of Graeco―Roman civilization. Their emphasis is chiefly on monotheism and the resurrection. They proclaim the alliance of Christianity with philosophy, of the Church and Empire. They accept the world in which they live, i.e. they are optimists.
The Hellenistic world of the second century was the arena of rhetoric. Christian writers of this period were trained in Greek and Roman schools. They all quote from Homer, the tragic authors, or from each other. Their literary forms ― alliteration and rhythm ― are steeped in Hellenism. So also their thoughts. Justin said the Logos spoke through Socrates and Plato. Tatian and Athenagoras are influenced by Aristotle, especially in logic and psychology. Justin has several Stoic ideas (destruction of world by fire, logos spermotikos and endiathetos). The most pronounced influence on them was Middle Platonism. Here we find a new type emerging, the Christian intellectual, who had no equivalent in Judeo Christianity. The Apologists represent the dynamic element in the Church at that time in contrast to the great bishops, who were primarily upholders of the received tradition.
Greek Apologists That Dealt with Christian ideas
Aristides of Athens
Aristides of Athens (before 138 AD): Wrote to emperor Hadrian(in Eus. 4:3:2). Divided humanity into four races according to religion: barbarians, Greeks, Jews, Christians. The first worship the four elements, Greeks believe in myths, Jews stress externals, and only the Christians possess truth. One text of Aristides insists that children are sinless. [Source: Carl A. Volz, late professor of church history at Luther Seminary, web.archive.org, martin.luthersem.edu]
Tatian the Syrian (fl. c. 170 AD) A student of Justin, but radically different from his teacher in that he finds no good whatever in philosophy or in pagan antiquity. He founded a Gnostic sect called Encratites. His 'discourse to the Greeks' is a polemic against Greek culture. His "Diatessaroon" (To die tessaroon euaggelion) is the “First Harmony of the Gospels”, used in Syria until the 5th C. Teaches creation from nothing (ex nihilo), Moses is older than Homer, evil came when humans misused their freedom, souls by nature are not immortal but only by grace, which implies the destruction of non―believers at death, only Christian souls continue after the destruction of the body.
Athenagoras of Athens (fl. c. 177AD): Refutes three main charges against the Christians: atheism, incest, and cannibalism. "A Plea for Christians" and "On the Resurrection of the Dead." He proves the resurrection from reason - it agrees with God's nature and with human nature. Both body and soul participate in sin/goodness, therefore should also participate in rewards/punishment. Emphasis is on the unity of the Word with the Father. Marriage is solely for the purpose of pro-creation and abortion is sinful. Strong on biblical inspiration.
Theophilus of Antioch (ca. 180 AD): Bishop of Antioch, who wrote "To Autolychus" in which he points to the absurdity of idolatry. He contrasts the wisdom of the prophets with the foolishness of pagans. He is the first to use the term trias (threeness) for God. The human soul is neither mortal or immortal but capable of either. He distinguishes between the immanent Word and the expressed Word ― the latter is the firstborn of all creation.
Melito of Sardis (ca. 170 AD), Bishop of Sardis. Advocate of solidarity between the Church and the State. World empires and the Christian religion are foster sisters and form a pair. The Christian religion means blessing and welfare to the empire. Christ was pre―existent and divine, but the distinction between the Father and Son is almost erased.
Epistle to Diognetus (c. 150 AD): Christians are like everyone else except morally superior. The soul is in the body as Christians are in the world. Just as there is sometimes body/soul tension, so also Christian/World, but the world needs the Church. This anonymous author is a master of rhetoric, and this is one of the most beautiful and noble defenses of the new faith.
Justin Martyr
Justin Martyr
Justin Martyr (died about 165 AD) was the most important of the Greek Apologists of the second century. He came to Christianity via Stoicism, Peripatetics, Pythagoreans, and Platonists. After his conversion he retained his philosopher's cloak and became an itinerant teacher. He founded a school in Rome and flourished during the reign of Antoninus Pious (138―161). Tatian, his pupil, was also an Apologist. Justin was strongly opposed by Crescens, the Cynic. In 165 he was beheaded. His martyrology is extant and genuine. [Source: Carl A. Volz, late professor of church history at Luther Seminary, web.archive.org, martin.luthersem.edu]
Three of his works have come down to us: "Dialogue With Trypho," the Jews, and two "Apologies", of which the first is the longest and most important. There are seven lost writings. God is transcendent and immutable, therefore a bridge is necessary. The Logos is the bridge, through whom God is revealed. God was revealed to the ancients and the pagans through the Logos. Plato et al possessed the Logos, but only partially. The Logos is not only the rational principle of the universe but it also is the pre―existent Christ. Those who lived according to this rational principle before Christ, "even though they have been thought to be atheists, were Christians."
Justin discusses the problem of the relationship between the Old Testament and Christianity in his Dialogue with Trypho. The OT relates to the New Testament in two ways: by means of events that point to events in the NT, and by means of prophecies that speak of New Testament realities. The first of these are "types" or "figures", the second are called "sayings." We see here the development of an exegetical tradition significant for patristic theology. Justin emphasizes Free―will, the role of Demons, and offers an extended description of a second century Eucharistic Service and Baptism. It is the earliest and fullest account we have of a Christian Liturgy.
Professor L. Michael White told PBS: “One of the most famous of the Christian apologists of the second century is a fellow known as Justin Martyr and indeed he eventually would die as a martyr. That's how he got his name. Justin himself was actually born in Palestine in the city Flavia Neapolis. Now that's the new Roman name for the old city of Samaria that we hear so much about in biblical tradition. Justin's family apparently is a pagan family living in that area. Justin himself seems to have been a very bright young man and so embarked upon a schooling in the philosophical traditions, and in fact we hear of him moving from philosophical school to philosophical school as he makes his way from his homeland in Palestine. First to Greece and then eventually all the way to the city of Rome, and he dabbles in one philosophical school and then another looking for what he considers to be the true philosophy of life. In the course of this intellectual journey Justin himself also encounters Christianity, and becomes a convert to Christianity and also one of its most important vocal supporters as he develops a philosophical defense of Christianity. So Justin's apology for Christianity is also a philosophical argument for the legitimacy of Christianity within the larger purview of Roman intellectual and religious life.... [Source: L. Michael White, Professor of Classics and Director of the Religious Studies Program University of Texas at Austin, Frontline, PBS, April 1998 ]
“By the year 150 Justin Martyr is living in Rome and actually has his own philosophical school in the city of Rome. In fact, the tradition of the events surrounding his death, what is called "The Martyrdom of Justin and His Friends" actually tells us that Justin ran the school upstairs in a rooming house where he lived... we actually know now that Justin was running a kind of Christian catechetical school on the model of a Greek philosophical school tradition, [teaching] Christian philosophy. Justin is very important not only because he mounts such an important intellectual defense of the Christian tradition. He's also important because he actually defines Christianity in philosophical terms for what we must imagine is a growing intellectual elite within the Christian tradition in the middle of the second century....
Justin Martyr Highlights Jesus and Distinguishes Christians from Pagans
Roman-era Christian Martyrdom
Professor L. Michael White told PBS: “One of the problems faced by this growing intellectual integration of Christianity into the Roman world is how far do you go before you lose your identity as Christians? Justin Martyr the apologist is faced with this problem as well. There are so many similarities between what Christians do and the way some of these other mystery cults behave. It actually is a difficult problem for him to suggest what's unique about Christianity. Justin himself has a very interesting answer to this problem. He says in fact that Christianity is not the new religion in this process, they're the old truth. They're a part of the oldest form of religious life in the world and the mystery cults as they tend to be called, are the ones who are the imitators of Christianity. In fact he even says it's a kind of satanic conspiracy to make them look too much like Christianity so the poor ignorant pagans will be duped into following false religion instead of true Christianity. But the key point is there are similarities and the similarities are notable. [Source: L. Michael White, Professor of Classics and Director of the Religious Studies Program University of Texas at Austin, Frontline, PBS, April 1998 ]
“The similarities of Jesus and other figures, though, continues to be an issue for pagans and Christians alike. Indeed from the perspective of Justin Martyr as an apologist trying to defend the legitimacy of Christianity, it's very important that he can hold up a model of other people, other well known, famous people the past in Greek and Roman tradition who similarly died for their beliefs. Who were models of the righteous sufferer, the martyr for their beliefs, such as Socrates himself. And so when Justin talks about Jesus he's really a new philosopher figure. Someone who brings a set of insightful beliefs and teachings into this world and who is obliged to die as a result of living by those principles. Jesus is a new Socrates.
“Apologists like Justin probably had an important impact on the spread of Christianity if for no other reason [than] because they gave it a kind of intellectual respectability in the ... Greek and Roman...intellectual tradition. They make it philosophically acceptable, and as a result of that I think we must imagine that by the later half of the second century and certainly into the early third century, Christianity is really attracting more and more people from the upper ranks of society.
Origen (died 254 A.D.)
Origen (185?-254), an Alexandrian Greek, castrated himself to ensure his purity and avoid temptations and became head of the leading Christian theological academy at the age of 18. He is credited with giving Christianity some analytical credibility by incorporating elements of Greek philosophy but was unsuccessful making it hold up to the scrutiny of history. In addition to being an apologist, Origen was among the finest biblical scholars of all time. He suggested that all beings, including the Devil, might ultimately find salvation. Although his works were widely read, Origen was judged heretical by some early Christian councils.
Origen is regarded as the most outstanding teacher and scholar of the pre-Nicene church. Eusebius bk 6 is a primary source of our knowledge of Origen. He was the child of a Christian home and the oldest son in a large family. His father Leonidas, who died as a martyr under Severus A.D. 202, instructed him in Christianity. Origen maintained himself and his family by teaching. Bishop Demetrius placed him in charge of the catechetical school at age 18. Life is divided into two parts: 203-231 Alexandria, 231-254 Caesarea. [Source: Carl A. Volz, late professor of church history at Luther Seminary, web.archive.org, martin.luthersem.edu /~]
Origen castrating himself
Divided his work with Heraclas who taught preparatory classes. Origen taught philosophy, theology, and Scripture. He attended the lectures of Ammonius Saccas, founder of Neoplatonism. He made several journeys - in 212 to Rome, "desiring to see the most ancient church of the Romans (B. Zephyrinus 199-217)." There he met Hippolytus. In 215 to Arabia at the request of the governor. To Antioth to visit the emperor's mother, Julia Mammaea (Alex Severus 222-235). In 216 to Palestine where the bishops of Caesarea and Palestine asked him to preach. Demetrius (Alexandria) opposed this since Origen was only a layman. 15 years later these sane bishops ordained him, but Demetrius objected on the grounds of jurisdiction.
Eusebius - "Demetrius was overcome by human weakness when he saw that Origen was prospering and a great man and distinguished and famous in the sight of all." Demetrius expelled him from Alexandria and deprived him of the priesthood. Thence to Caesarea, second period of his life, where he founded a school and taught for 20 years. Gregory "Thaumaturgus" a pupil. In 244 a journey to Arabia against monarchianism. He suffered torture under Decius and died c. 254. Hardly a man has ever had more staunch friends or implacable foes. His name was the centre of controversies for centuries. Council of Constantinople in 553 passed 15 anathemas against some of his teachings, including the notion of the pre-existence of souls.
“Writings: Epiphanius estimated Origen wrote 6,000 works. Jerome said 2,000. We know of 800. "Starting from that time, Origen's commentaries on the divine Scripture had their beginning at the instigation of Ambrose, who not only plied him with innumerable verbal exhortations and encouragements, but also provided him unstintingly with what was necessary. For as he dictated there were ready at hand more than seven shorthand writers who relieved each other at fixed times, and as many copyists, as well as girls skilled in penmanship - for all of which Ambrose provided without stint the necessary means." /~\
“1. Textual Criticism - "Hexapla" the first attempt in the history of Christianity to provide the student with the necessary instruments to establish the original text of Scripture. The O.T. in 6 parallel columns: Heb text in Heb; Heb text in Greek characters; Greek trans of Aquila; Greek trans of Symnachus; LXX; another Greek translation. 2. EXEGETICAL WORKS - the 1st scientific exegete, he wrote at least one commentary on every book of the Bible, OT and NT. Also homilies and "scholia" = explanations /~\
“3. APOLOGETIC - "Contra Celsus" Celsus had written "The True Word" against Christianity, a biting and well documented attack, not only on Christian practice but on the doctrines of the faith. 4. DOGMATICS - "De Principiis" the first systematic theology and manual of dogma, in four books - God, World, Freedom, Revelation. Much of it, unfortunately, is only available in Rufinus' questionable Latin version. "Dialogue with Heraclides" discussion of Trinity, Christology and monarchianism. 5. PRACTICAL - "On Prayer" "Exhortation to Martyrdom" /~\
Origen's Theology
“Trinity - he is used by both Arians and Nicenes. The Son proceeds from the Father not by division but in the same way as will proceeds from reason. The Son is eternal and since he is begotten, it follows that the begetting must be eternal. He coins the idea of the "eternal generation of the Son." He also used "homoousios." Even tho he believed in the deity of the Son, he was still "deuteros Theos." The Father is "autotheos" and the Son is "haploos agathos" - primal goodness. [Source: Carl A. Volz, late professor of church history at Luther Seminary, web.archive.org, martin.luthersem.edu /~]
“CHRISTOLOGY - Origen was the first to use the designation God-Man (theanthropos). He also taught the interchange of attributes or "communicatio idiomatum." The soul of Jesus was the point of contact between God and man. He introduced into theology such terms as physis, hypostasis, ousia, homoousios, theanthropos. MARIOLOGY - Sozomon claims the first to use "theotokos" of Mary. Universal mother. ECCLESIOLOGY - he refers to the Church as the City of God here on earth, the first to use the term. "Extra hanc domum, id est ecclesiam, nemo salvetur." /~\
“BAPTISM AND ORIGINAL SIN - he testifies to both. Every person is born in sin and for this reason it is apostolic tradition to baptize the newly born. "Every soul which is born in the flesh is tainted with the stain of iniquity and sin. No man is clean from sin, not even if his life be one day long . . . for which reason it is the custom of the Church that baptism be given to infants. Certainly if there were nothing in infants that required remission and called for lenient treatment, the grace of baptism would seem unnecessary." PENANCE - Remission of sins is through baptism, martyrdom, almsgiving, forgiving, conversion of the sinner, and private penance. /~\
Origen
“EUCHARIST - The blood of Christ can be drunk in a 2-fold manner, namely sacramentally and "when we receive the life-giving words." The literal interpretation of Communion is the one commonly held in the Church, but it is the idea of simple souls. The symbolical interpretation is more worthy of God and is the one held by the learned. /~\
“ESCHATOLOGY - Apokatastasis refers to the universal restoration of all things in their originally pure and spiritual state. Even Satan himself will eventually be saved, but through fire. This is based on the idea that all punishment is remedial or medicinal and corrective, not vindictive; and if God sets out to correct people through punishment (i.e. hellfire) they will ultimately be corrected, otherwise God's will is thwarted, and God is no longer God. /~\
“PRE-EXISTENCE OF SOULS - The present visible world was preceded by another. Human souls are those who in the former world fell away from God and are now enclosed in material bodies. Sins committed by souls in their pre-natal state explains the diversity among men on earth. /~\
“INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE - The Bible is the dynamic living Word of God. Old Test illuminated by N.T. Most of Scripture has 3 senses corresponding to the three parts of man (body, soul, spirit) - historical, mystical, moral sense. The spiritual meaning is to be preferred (i.e. allegorical method). /~\
“MYSTICISM - the highest good is to become as like to God as possible. To do this we need His grace as well as our own efforts. Perfection is through the imitation of Christ. He distinguishes between Christians who have special gifts to be disciples and those who are merely faithful. The "gnostic Christian" follows the steps of self-knowledge, battle against sin, ascetical exercises, culminating in mystical union with the Logos.
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Christian Origins sourcebooks.fordham.edu “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File); “ Encyclopedia of the World’s Religions” edited by R.C. Zaehner (Barnes & Noble Books, 1959); King James Version of the Bible, gutenberg.org; New International Version (NIV) of The Bible, biblegateway.com; Christian Classics Ethereal Library (CCEL) ccel.org , Frontline, PBS, Wikipedia, BBC, National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Live Science, Encyclopedia.com, Archaeology magazine, Reuters, Associated Press, Business Insider, AFP, Library of Congress, Lonely Planet Guides, Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.
Last updated March 2024