Home | Category: Early Christian Theology, Councils and Practices
FOURTH AND FIFTH CENTURY CHRISTIAN THEOLOGIANS
Jerome and Augustine
Influential fourth century thinkers include: 1)Athanasius (c. 296–373), who, against the Arians, insisted on Jesus's divinity; 2) Gregory of Nyssa (c. 330–c. 395); 3) Gregory Nazianzen (329–89); and 4) Basil (c. 330–79), who upheld the doctrines that emerged as orthodoxy. With his Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260–c. 340) laid the foundation for all later histories of Christianity. Jerome (c. 342–424) wrote on the Christian life and produced the Latin translation of the Bible, or Vulgate, that was practically the only version used in Western Christianity for more than a thousand years. [Source: Michael J. McClymond, “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices”, 2000s, Encyclopedia.com]
Michael J. McClymond wrote in the“Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices”:Early Church father John Chrysostom (c. 347–407), meaning "golden mouthed,", was a gifted preacher and theologian who served as bishop of Constantinople until his challenging sermons aroused opposition and his enemies deposed him. He recommended that you begin with the stories of violent divine judgment before you seek out Jesus’s more compassionate message. John of Damascus (c. 675–c. 749), who summarized the Orthodox faith in his writings, is still consulted as an authority.
Augustine (354–430) was the greatest and most influential of the early theologians in the Latin-speaking empire. The eights "Doctors" of the Early Church were Greek: 1) Athanasius, 2) Basil, 3) Gregory Nazianzen 4) John Chrysostom; Latin: 5) Ambrose, 6) Augustine, 7) Jerome, 8) Gregory of Nyssa
Websites and Resources: Early Christianity: PBS Frontline, From Jesus to Christ, The First Christians pbs.org ; Elaine Pagels website elaine-pagels.com ; Sacred Texts website sacred-texts.com ; Gnostic Society Library gnosis.org ; Guide to Early Church Documents iclnet.org; Early Christian Writing earlychristianwritings.com ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Christian Origins sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; BBC on Christianity bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity ; Candida Moss at the Daily Beast Daily Beast Christian Classics Ethereal Library www.ccel.org; Saints and Their Lives Today's Saints on the Calendar catholicsaints.info ; Saints' Books Library saintsbooks.net ; Saints and Their Legends: A Selection of Saints libmma.contentdm ; Saints engravings. Old Masters from the De Verda collection colecciondeverda.blogspot.com ; Lives of the Saints - Orthodox Church in America oca.org/saints/lives ; Lives of the Saints: Catholic.org catholicism.org
Fathers of the Church
The “Fathers of the Church” refers to theologians active around 1,500 to 1,000 years ago that shaped the modern church, particularly the Catholic church.James Kang Hoon Lee wrote in The Conversation: The spiritual and theological authority of the fathers is recognized not only by Catholics, but also by other Christians, including Eastern Orthodox and Protestant communities. Not all agree on the same list of church fathers, yet Christian leaders have been deeply influenced by the fathers’ teachings, from medieval theologians and Protestant reformers to Pope Francis today. And while there are no women among the “fathers,” the “desert mothers” — influential religious women from the same era — have also left their mark. [Source: James Kang Hoon Lee, Associate Professor of the History of Early Christianity, Southern Methodist University, The Conversation, September 23, 2023]
In Christianity, the honorary title “father” comes from Greco-Roman and biblical ideas about the father as the head of the family. The Roman “pater familias” was responsible for the welfare, education and leadership of the family. He was also considered a priest or religious representative of the household. In the Bible, the first-century Apostle Paul speaks of himself as a spiritual father to other Christians. The apostles and bishops of the church were treated as believers’ “fathers” insofar as they were responsible for preaching, teaching and leading worship.
Early Christians started using the title “father” for bishops, but by the fifth century, it was also applied to some priests and deacons. Over time, theologians began to refer to a specific group of “church fathers” to support their positions amid debate — starting in the fourth century, with the Greek bishops Eusebius, who wrote a history of the Christian church’s first three centuries, and Basil of Caesarea, who lived in what is now Turkey. St. Augustine — the Catholic bishop in Roman North Africa who became famous for his “Confessions” — frequently cited the fathers’ teachings to support his arguments during controversies with theological opponents.
Embossed silver urn with the body of Ambrose in the crypt of Sant'Ambrose, with the skeletons of Gervase and Protase
The fathers’ position in the church was refined in the fifth century by a Gallic monk named Vincent of Lérins. Not all ancient Christian writers had equal authority, he wrote, but the views of the true fathers could be trusted because their teachings were consistent, as if they formed a council of masters “all receiving, holding and handing on the same doctrine.”
By the modern era, four traits were used as criteria to distinguish fathers of the church: 1) orthodox or right theological teachings on essential points, in accord with the church’s public doctrine; 2) the holiness of their life; 3) the church’s recognition of them and their teaching; and 4) antiquity, meaning they lived during the early Christian era that ended around the seventh or eighth century.
The title is distinct from the later honorific “doctor of the church,” for spiritual teachers who have made significant contributions to Christian doctrine in any period of history, although some theologians hold both titles. Today, church leaders continue to rely upon the fathers’ teachings as authoritative sources of wisdom.
Western and Eastern Fathers
The fourth and fifth centuries were the golden age of patristic writing (Christian literature, excluding the Bible, written by Christians before the 8th century). The Western Fathers wrote in Latin; most of the Eastern Fathers wrote in Greek, although others used Syrian, Coptic, Armenian, Georgian, Arabic etc. [Source:Jose Orlandis, A Short History of the Catholic Church, 2001, earlychristians.org]
Eastern Fathers were 1) St. Athanasiu; 2) St. Basil of Cesarea, St. Gregory of Nyssa and St. Gregory of Nazianzus (the Cappadocians); 3) St. John Chrysostom and 4) St. Cyril of Alexandria
Many say the beginning of Greek patristic period began with Eusebius of Caesarea (+ 339), a bishop who wrote “Ecclesiastical History”, a primary source of information about the first three centuries of Christian history. A younger contemporary of Eusebius, St Athanasius (+ 373) was the main champion of the Nicene profession of faith. The victory over Arianism (the belief that God alone is immutable and self-existent, and that Jesus is not God but a creature with a beginning, a view deemed heretical) was won mainly by the work of three Fathers called the Cappadocians — St. Basil of Cesarea, St. Gregory of Nyssa and St. Gregory of Nazianzus. They like Athanasius, belonged to the neo-Alexandrian school. The most famous Egyptian Father of the fifth century was St Cyril, bishop of Alexandria (412-44). Cyril upheld orthodox teaching against Nestorius and, for his defence of Mary’s title of Mother of God, he must be regarded as the main mariologist among the Fathersof the Church.
Western Fathers: 1) St. Ambrose; 2) St. Jerome; 3) St. Augustine; 4) St. Leo the Great and St. Gregory the Great; and 5) St. Isidore of Seville
St Ambrose (c. 339-97) is considered the first of the great Fathers of the west. Important historically as well religiously, he produced a great deal of influential biblical exegesis (explanations or interpretations of Christian texts) and was friend and adviser to three Roman emperors. Ambrose was famous for his preaching and served as the Bishop of Mila. He had a profound impact on the most outstanding of the Latin Fathers,St Augustine, even baptizing him.
St Augustine needs no introduction and is discussed at length elsewhere. St. Jerome is regarded as one of the greatest scholars of sacred scripture. The translated much of the Bible directly from Hebrew or Aramaic into Latin. This version, the Vulgate, was the Bible used by Catholic church for over a thousand years. The Fathers of the western Church also include two popes: Leo the Great and Gregory the Great. Leo I played an important role in the formulation of Christological dogma. Gregory (540-604) is credited with modernizing the church in the post- Roman era.
Augustine (A.D. 354—430)
Saint Augustine by Goya
St. Augustine (A.D. 354-430) has been called the most influential Christian “between Saint Paul and Luther.” Born under the name Aurelius Augustinus, he was the Christian bishop of Hippo, a North African Roman outpost in the waning days of the Roman Empire, when Christian communities were well established but divided.
St. Augustine’s efforts helped clarify many divisive doctrinal issues and helped define what the Christian church is today. His account of his early life in his “Confessions” is widely regarded as classic biography of the conversion experience. In addition to the contributions he made to religion Augustine has also been called the first great psychologist, the father of the autobiography and pioneer of using literature to analyze himself and to explore self consciousness. His philosophy drew heavily on Platonic concepts.
Carl A. Volz wrote: “Augustine combined the creative power of Tertullian and the intellectual breadth of Origen with the ecclesiastical sense of Cyprian, the dialectical acumen of Aristotle with the idealistic enthusiasm and profound speculation of Plato, the practical sense of the Latin with the agile intellect of the Greek. Augustine is the greatest philosopher of the patristic age and arguably the most important and influential theologian of the church after the New Testament. The doctrinal magisterium of the church has probably followed no other theological author so often as it has followed him, certainly in the West.” [Source: Carl A. Volz, late professor of church history at Luther Seminary, web.archive.org, martin.luthersem.edu, 1997]
See Separate Articles: ST. AUGUSTINE: HIS LIFE, CONFESSIONS AND CONVERSION factsanddetails.com ; ST. AUGUSTINE'S TEACHINGS, WRITING AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO CHRISTAINITY europe.factsanddetails.com
Ambrose of Milan
Ambrose of Milan (d. 397) was an inspiration for St. Augustine, His father was a high government official. He came from a Christian family. Sister Marcellina took the veil at the hands of pope Liberius. Ambrose became a 'consult' for northern Italy. When the Arian bishop of Milan, Auxentius, died, the crowds proclaimed him bishop (despite Nicaea canon 9). He was consecrated bishop eight days after his baptism. First he devoted himself to theological studies under Simplicianus (who succeeded him). Distributed his considerable fortune among the poor. Exercised a decisive influence on the ecclesiastical and political situation of the time. Was bishop 24 years. Extinguished the remains of Arianism. Famous as a preacher — Augustine may have been converted by hearing him.
Ambrose became bishop of Milan in 374, when, as governor of the Italian province Aemilia et Liguria, he intervened n the civic disturbances which on this occasion accompanied the election of a new bishop at Milan. Born c. 334 or c. 340, when his father was praetorian prefect in Gaul, Ambrose had had a traditional education and was following a normal career path, serving as an advocate, then an assessor in the civil bureaucracy before becoming governor. He belonged to the Roman aristocracy and seems, in fact, to have been a relative of Symmachus, his great opponent. He was bishop of Milan fro 374 until his death in 397 and may reasonably be regarded as the first bishop to stand independently against the will of emperor on some occasions. [Source: J. Vanderspoel, Department of Greek, Latin and Ancient History, University of Calgary]
Mosaic of St Ambrose possibly made around the time he was alive
Justina (Val II) requested a church for 'homoion' worship (Christians who believed that Jesus was of a similar, but not identical in essence (or substance) with God the Father). Ambrose refused. Altar of Victory episode: He was involved in in the destruction of Jewish synagogues and agnostic chapels. He refused to allow Theodosius to rebuild them. Ambrose with also connected to the Massacre in Thessalonika, where 7,000 people were murdered. He wrote Pastoral letter of excommunication "Each man is persecuted by some woman or other in proportion; as my merits are far less, the trials are heavier." He also said: "The palaces belong to the emperor, the church to the bishops." "The emperor is within the church and not above it."
Writings: 1) "De officiis ministrorum" — let comprehensive presentation of Xian ethics. (Follows Cicero in work with same title — and follows Cicerole arrangement.). 2) At least 6 books on virginity. Highly praised the virtues of celibacy. (Mothers who hoped to be grandmothers kept their daughters from church when Ambrose preached on it.), 3) "De mysterries" "De sacramentis" for catechumens. Very important for the history of liturgy. 4) Introduced hymn singing in Milan and wrote a number himself, plus used chanting of the psalms. LBW 28 "Savior of the Nations Come" 271 "O Splendor of the Father's Light" 275 "O Trinity O Blessed Light"(BenRule prescribes these 2 for MP and EP.)
Theological issues: 1) Deity of Holy spirit; 2) True humanity of Christ; 3) Every person inherited a sinful state, therefore children must be baptized; 4) sacrificial character of the Eucharist; 5) first to call Eucharist "mass"; 7) "Patron of the veneration of Mary"; 8) Purgatory
St. Jerome
St. Jerome (Eusebius Jerome) (342-420) was a Dalmatian.from present-day Croatia when it was part of the Roman Empire. He is regarded as the greatest student of sacred scripture: He lived for periods in Antioch, Constantinople, Trier and Rome, and eventually settled in Bethlehem, the birthplace of Jesus. [Source:Jose Orlandis, A Short History of the Catholic Church, 2001, earlychristians.org]
The second-most voluminous writer after St. Augustine, St. Jerome is famous for making an early translation of the Bible into Latin called the Vulgate. It is the official Bible of the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic Church recognizes him as the patron saint of translators, librarians, and encyclopedists. He translated many biblical texts into Latin from Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. The Council of Trent in 1546 declared the Vulgate authoritative "in public lectures, disputations, sermons, and expositions". [Source: Wikipedia]
Gerome by Caravaggio Jerome was born Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus in Stridon. Of Illyrian ancestry, he was not baptized until about 360–369 in Rome, where he had gone with a friend to pursue rhetorical and philosophical studies. Jerome learned Latin and at least some Greek. As a student, Jerome engaged in some hedonistic pursuits and experimented sexual as students in Rome at that time did but suffered terrible bouts of guilt afterwards.To appease his conscience, on Sundays he visited the sepulchers of the martyrs and the Apostles in the catacombs. This experience reminded him of the terrors of Hell: Jerome showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation. He lived as an ascetic for four or five years in the Syrian desert, and later near Bethlehem for 34 years.
Jerome was known for his teachings on Christian moral life, especially to those living in cosmopolitan centers such as Rome. In many cases, he focused his attention on the lives of women and identified how a woman devoted to Jesus should live her life. This focus stemmed from his close patron relationships with several prominent female ascetics who were members of affluent senatorial families. Jose Orlandis wrote: He was a passionate polemicist and, through spiritual direction, energetically promoted asceticism among the women of the Roman aristocracy. Jerome is famous as a historian and exegete, but his greatest legacy was the translation of many books of the bible direct from Hebrew or Aramaic into Latin. The Vulgate's authenticity, as declared by the council of Trent, means that in matters of faith and morals it is free from error.
St. Jerome's Letter to a Soldier
This letter to a friend — Jerome Letter 14 — was written in 374. “Pampered soldier, why are you wasting time in your father's house? Where is the rampart, the ditch, the winter campaign under canvas? Behold the trumpet sounds from heaven! Our General, fully armed, comes amid the clouds to overcome the world. From our King's mouth comes the double-edged sword that cuts down all in its path. Are you going to remain in your chamber and not come out to join in the battle? . . . Listen to your King's proclamation: "He who is not with me is against me, and he who does not gather with me scatters." [Source: D. Brendan Nagle and Stanley M. Burstein, eds., The Ancient World: Readings in Social and Cultural History (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995) pp. 321-322., thenagain info dkoeller@sbcglobal.net]
“Remember when you joined up as a recruit, when buried with Christ in baptism, you took the oath of allegiance to him, declaring that you would spare neither your father nor your mother? But now the adversary in your own heart is trying to kill Christ! Now the enemy's camp has its sights on your loyalty! Though your little nephew twine his arms around your neck; though your mother, with disheveled hair and tearing her robe asunder, point to the breast with which she nourished you; though your father fall down on the threshold before you — trample on his body and go your way! Fly with tearless eyes to the standard of the Cross. In this matter cruelty is your duty . . .
“I know well the chains which you will say hinder you. Indeed, my breast is not made of iron, nor my heart of stone. I was not born from a rock or raised by Hyrcanian tigers. I have been through this experience too. Your widowed sister may throw her gentle arms around you. The household slaves, in whose company you grew up, will cry, "To what master are you abandoning us?" Your old nurse and her husband, who, after your own natural father, have the next claim to your devotion, say, "Wait awhile until we die so you can bury us!" Perhaps your foster mother, with sagging breasts and wrinkled face, will sing you your old childhood lullaby! . . . But the love of Christ and the fear of Gehenna will easily break such bonds.
Saint Vincent preaches to a crowd
“You will claim that the Scriptures command us to obey our parents. On the contrary, whoever loves his parents more than Christ, loses his own soul. If my enemy takes up a sword to kill me, will I be held back by my mother's tears? Should I desert from the army because of my father, to whom in the cause of Christ I owe no burial because in his cause I owe burial to everyone? . . . You may claim that all your fellow citizens are Christians, but your case is not the same as everyone else. Hear what the Lord has to say: "If you would be perfect, go and sell what you have and follow me." You promised to be perfect.
“When you resigned from the army and "made yourself an eunuch for the kingdom of Christ," what else had you in mind besides a perfect life? A perfect servant of Christ has nothing besides Christ. Indeed, if he has anything besides Christ, he is not perfect . . . If you are perfect, why do you pine for your father's property? But if you are not perfect, you have failed the Lord. The Gospel thunders the divine words: "You cannot serve two masters." Does anyone dare to make Christ a liar by serving Mammon and the Lord at the same time? Does he not say often, "If anyone will come after me, let him deny himself, take up his cross and follow me"? If I load myself with gold, do I imagine I am following Christ? . . .
“0 desert, green with the flowers of Christ! 0 solitude in which the stones of the Great City of the King mentioned in the Apocalypse are found! 0 wilderness rejoicing in the presence of God! Brother, what are you doing in the world when you are so much more important than the world? How long are the shadows of a roof going to hold you back? How long will the smoky dungeon of these cities imprison you? . . . How refreshing to fling off the burdens of the flesh and fly to the sparkling aether? . . . You are spoiled indeed, dear friend, if you wish to rejoice here on earth — and afterwards reign with Christ!”
Vincent of Lérins and His Defense of Orthodoxy
Pope Francis often refers to Vincent of Lérins (d. 445) to explain how Christian doctrine develops over time, like a seed taking root and growing into a tree. Vincent of Lérins was a Gallic monk and author of early influential Christian writings, such as the Commonitorium (c. 434), which offers guidance in the orthodox teaching of Christianity. Born in Toulouse, Gaul to a noble family and believed to be the brother of Lupus of Troyes, he wrote in Latin and opposed the Augustinian model of grace. In his early life he engaged in secular pursuits and later entered Lérins Abbey on Île Saint-Honorat, an island near Cannes, France, where under the pseudonym Peregrinus he wrote the Commonitorium about three years after the Council of Ephesus. Vincent defended calling Mary, mother of Jesus, Theotokos (God-bearer). This opposed the teachings of Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople which were condemned by the Council of Ephesus. Eucherius of Lyon called him a "conspicuously eloquent and knowledgeable" holy man. His relics are preserved at Lérins. His feast day is celebrated on May 24. [Source: Wikipedia]
The Commonitorium (c. 434) offers guidance in the orthodox teaching of Christianity. Vincent wrote it provide himself with a general rule to distinguish Catholic truth from heresy. In it is Vincent's famous maxim: "Moreover, in the Catholic Church itself, all possible care must be taken, that we hold that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, by all." Pope Francis has quoted Vincent's Commonitory on several occasions, notably his words on doctrine and the progress of doctrine: "The dogma of the Christian religion must follow these laws. It progresses, consolidating over the years, developing with time, deepening with age."
In a classic definition of "orthodoxy", “St. Vincent of Lerins wrote in Chapter 4 of the Commonitorium in (A.D. 432): “(1) I have continually given the greatest pains and diligence to inquiring, from the greatest possible number of men outstanding in holiness and in doctrine, how I can secure a kind of fixed and, as it were, general and guiding principle for distinguishing the true Catholic Faith from the degraded falsehoods of heresy. And the answer that I receive is always to this effect; that if I wish, or indeed if anyone wishes, to detect the deceits of heretics that arise and to avoid their snares and to keep healthy and sound in a healthy faith, we ought, with the Lord's help, to fortify our faith in a twofold manner, firstly, that is, by the authority of God's Law, then by the tradition of the Catholic Church. [Source: The "Vincentian Canon", A.D. 434[ed. Moxon, Cambridge Patristic Texts, Internet Ancient History Sourcebook, texted related to medieval and Byzantine history.
“(2) Here, it may be, someone will ask, Since the canon of Scripture is complete, and is in itself abundantly sufficient, what need is there to join to it the interpretation of the Church? The answer is that because of the very depth of Scripture all men do not place one identical interpretation upon it. The statements of the same writer are explained by different men in different ways, so much so that it seems almost possible to extract from it as many opinions as there are men. Novatian expounds in one way, Sabellius in another, Donatus in another, Arius, Eunomius and Macedonius in another, Photinus, Apollinaris and Priscillian in another, Jovinian, Pelagius and Caelestius in another, and latterly Nestorius in another. Therefore, because of the intricacies of error, which is so multiform, there is great need for the laying down of a rule for the exposition of Prophets and Apostles in accordance with the standard of the interpretation of the Church Catholic.
St Athanasius
“(3) Now in the Catholic Church itself we take the greatest care to hold that which has been believed everywhere, always and by all. That is truly and properly 'Catholic,' as is shown by the very force and meaning of the word, which comprehends everything almost universally. We shall hold to this rule if we follow universality [i.e. oecumenicity], antiquity, and consent. We shall follow universality if we acknowledge that one Faith to be true which the whole Church throughout the world confesses; antiquity if we in no wise depart from those interpretations which it is clear that our ancestors and fathers proclaimed; consent, if in antiquity itself we keep following the definitions and opinions of all, or certainly nearly all, bishops and doctors alike.
“(4) What then will the Catholic Christian do, if a small part of the Church has cut itself off from the communion of the universal Faith? The answer is sure. He will prefer the healthiness of the whole body to the morbid and corrupt limb. But what if some novel contagion try to infect the whole Church, and not merely a tiny part of it? Then he will take care to cleave to antiquity, which cannot now be led astray by any deceit of novelty. What if in antiquity itself two or three men, or it may be a city, or even a whole province be detected in error? Then he will take the greatest care to prefer the decrees of the ancient General Councils, if there are such, to the irresponsible ignorance of a few men. But what if some error arises regarding which nothing of this sort is to be found? Then he must do his best to compare the opinions of the Fathers and inquire their meaning, provided always that, though they belonged to diverse times and places, they yet continued in the faith and communion of the one Catholic Church; and let them be teachers approved and outstanding. And whatever he shall find to have been held, approved and taught, not by one or two only but by all equally and with one consent, openly, frequently, and persistently, let him take this as to be held by him without the slightest hesitation.
Athanasius
Athanasius (295-373) was the chief defender of Nicaea. He devoted his life to the defense of orthodoxy against Arianism (the belief that God alone is immutable and self-existent, and that Jesus is not God but a creature with a beginning, a view deemed heretical). Athanasius was exiled five times, for a total of 17 years. Bishop of Alex from 328. At Nicea he was a deacon and secretary to Bishop Alexander. He had a close relationship with Egyptian monks (Vita Anotonii).
Writings: 1) De Incarnations (with Oratio contra gentes). Early work . Attacks the polytheism of paganism and its absurdities. Then offers reasons for belief in the Incarnation. "God became man that man might become God." 2) "Against the Arians" — much documentary material including the texts of letters in the dispute and the decrees of councils.. "On the Nicene decree" (Epistola de decretis Nicaenae synodi). Defends the Nicene Creed. 4) "Life of St Anthony" — extremely important. Introduces monasteries to the West while he was in exile in Rome. 5) At least 39 Easter Letters. 39th has canon as we know it today. He excludes the Old Testament apocryphal writings, but says they are good as devotional literature. 6) Ath Creed not by Ath, but for centuries his name gave it authority in the church. Quicunque Vult. Strong on Trinity.
Doctrine: Equality of three persons of Trinity, including Holy spirit. Strong on homo-ousios. Logos doct is rooted in his understanding of salvation. We would not have been redeemed had God Himself not entered into humanity. The Logos, as true God, has defied humanity by uniting to itself a human nature. And thereby has also conquered death. (On Holy spirit — "Letter to Serapion.11)Wi Cappadocians said Holy spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son.
John Chrysostom (St. John of Antioch)
John Chrysostom (St. John of Antioch) (d. 407) came from a noble family in Antioch. Since the 6th century he has been called Chrysostom. Studied under famous pagan, Libanius (d. 365) Baptized as an adult, probably by bishop of Antioch. Lived an ascetic life in his mother's house. Studied theology with Theodore of Mopsuestia. Ordained priest by Flavian in 386. For 12 years (until 397) he was the preacher of the principal church in Antioch.
Brilliant eloquence showed most forcefully in the 21 homilies in 387 after the rebellion caused by an increase in taxes. Imperial statues had been smashed — sermons called "On The Statues." Bishop Flavian went to Constinople to intercede with emperor Theodosius and secured an amnesty for the city.
St John Chrysostom
When Nectarius died 397,Chrysostom became Bishop of Constantinople. Theophilus of Alex 'had' to consecrate him bishop. Chrysostom establsihed an ascetic way of life. He also established hospitals and orphanages. Reforming zeal made him unpopular with some. He incurred the anger of empress Eudoxia. His principal enemy was Theophilus of Alexandria.The 403 Synod of The Oak (presided over by Theophilus of Alexandria) deposed Chrysostom. He returned possibly because an earthquake frightened Eudoxia, but only for two months. Banished in 404. Died 407.
Writings and doctrines: 1) Literal sense of Scr predominates, Antiochene School; 2) Homilies (Feast of Xmas in 386, where he says that it came from Rome to Antioch only 10 years ago..); 3) De Sacerdos "On The Priesthood" in 6 books met with extraordinary success. "On Arrogance And The Education of Children"; 4) Three treatises on virginity and 2 against 'subintroductae';
Input on Important theology: 1) Christology — strong on distinctions between the two natures of Christ. Does not use 'theotokos' ( the designation of the Virgin Mary as mother of God). Chrysostom opposed the term. 2) Original Sin — rather fuzzy. "We baptize infants, tho they do not have sins." 3) Eucharist — very emphatic on the 'real presence' of Christ. And sacrifice. It is identical with that of Calvary. 4) Penance — silent on it. In his 'On The Priesthood' hearing confessions is not one of the tasks. 5) Chrysostom defaced statues. Pleaded with Theodosius. Chrysostom's sermons "On The Statues". Theodosius forgives. Liturgy of Chrysostom is used on most Sundays in Greek Orthodoxy, but it is not from Chrysostom.
Cappadocians
The Cappadocians refers to the neo-Alexandrian school of theology. They essentially produced the Doctrine of the Trinity as we know it today, All three were educated in Greek classics, for which they had a deep love and respect. They are classified as they are as they all came from Cappadocia in the center of modern Turkey. Two were brothers and the third was their good friend. They completed what Athanasius began.
The Cappadocians were St. Basil of Cesarea, St. Gregory of Nyssa and St. Gregory of Nazianzus. Basil of Caesarea (330-79) and Gregory of Nyssa (335-94) were brothers. Gregory of Nazianzus (+ 389/390) was their friend. They are credited with leading the charge against Arianism. Basil was known for his outstanding writings and was considered an able administrator and organizer of monastic life in the east; Gregory of Nazianzus, sometimes called the ‘Christian Demosthenes’, is famous for five theological discourses in defense of the Trinity — and the divinity of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. Gregory of Nyssa, the most profound theologian of the three, was one of the fathers of Christian mysticism.
J. Vanderspoel wrote: “Two families of Cappadocia provided, from the 350s to the late fourth century, some significant representatives of Christianity collectively known as the 'Cappadocian Fathers.' The brothers Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa, together with their, but especially Basil's, friend Gregory of Nazianzus, remain the best known bishops of the period between Athanasius and John Chrysostom in the East, and eclipsing in their fame even the bishops of Rome; Ambrose of Milan is perhaps the only contemporary whose name is as well-known. Like the others mentioned here, with the exception of Athanasius, the Cappadocians were classically trained in rhetoric and other branches of late antique education; their speeches can therefore serve as examples of the genre in this period. Because all three were also bishops involved in the governance of fourth-century Christianity, their speeches, as well as their letters, are useful evidence for Christian politics in this period; this is especially true because Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil were more than once violently upset with each other on such issues, though they managed to remain, beneath it all, close friends. [Source: J. Vanderspoel, Department of Greek, Latin and Ancient History, University of Calgary]
St Gregory of Nazianzus
Basil of Caesarea (d. 379) came from a distinguished Christian family and was the son of a distinguished lawyer. His mother, Emmelia, his sister Macrina his grandmother, the older Macrina, his brother Peter (was a bishop), brother Gregory Nyssa (also a bishop) are all venerated as saints — three bishops in one family. He received a good education, completed in Athens. After Athens, he visited monastic sites in Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia. Returned home and established a monastery. Wrote the "Basilian Rule'' — still the normative Rule for all Greek Orthodox monasticism. There was a social nature to his monasticism. He tells story of visiting Egyptian hermits. Was ordained a priest — became bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. Was an 'activist' in pastoral care. Heavily involved in politics especially under the Arian emperor and later under Valens.
Writings: 1) 3 books "Against the Eunomians"; 2) 9 homilies on the Hexaemeron" show respect for literal text; 3) Admonitions To Young Men on the Profitable Use of Pagan Literature" to his nephews. Need a grasp of the classics before undertaking Scripture, Impt for future education for the priesthood. 4) 365 letters extant. Many sided activities and interests. 5) Liturgy of Basil — still used by Orthodox churches on 10 days of the year. 6) "On the Holy Spirit" for the homo-ousios of the Holy spirit. Helped resolve or at least end the Trinitarian debates. NB still emph distinctions in godhead.
Gregory of Nyssa (d. 394) is the most original and significant as a theologian of the three Cappadocians. The younger brother of Basil, he is regarded as a Father of Christian mysticism. In "Life of Moses" he discusses the gradual ascent of the soul to God. "On the Life of Macrina" — about his sister — is a devotional biography. Shows Macrina to be a good theologian in her own right. Retired to the solitude of a monastic life. His brother Basil forced him into the bishopric of Nyssa against his will. His books included the 12 books against Eunomius, "Against Apollinarius" "On Not Three Gods" and The Great Catechism — (Catechetical Orations) (LCC III) Trinity, Incarnations, Redemption, sacraments.
Gregory of Nazianzus
Gregory of Nazianzus(d. 390) was the Son of a bishop. His mother, Nonna, was responsible for her husband's conversion. Spent time in Caesarea (Palestine) and then went to Athens, where he and Basil became lifelong friends. Father ordained him against his will, and after that he left home for a time and went to the desert, but returned to assist in the pastoral work with his father. Episode of Basil consecrating him bishop of Sasima, against his will. "Bewitched and miserable little place."
In 379 Theodosius asked him to come to Constantinople to reorganize the Nicene Xians there. In 380 Theodosius inducted him into the Church of the Apostles in Constantinople. In 381 he was confirmed as Bishop of Constantinople. After much difficulty, he quit, but first delivered his "Parting Speech."
Gregory of Nazianzus had a sensitive, contemplative nature, and in contrast to Basil, possessed only little gift and inclination for practical activities. He liked best to devote himself to a life of scholarly and contemplative leisure. Poor health made him nervous and irritable.
Writings: 1) Greatest achievement was, his 45 "Theological Orations". Five stand out especially, delivered in Constantinople in 380 at the height of the Arian tensions. (LCC III). These defined the orthodox doct of the Trinity. 2) He coined the word "Proceeding" for the Holy spirit. Insisted on the divine nature of the 3 persons. "How long shall we still place the light under the bushel and with hold the perfect divinity of the Holy Spirit?" 3) On Christology — insists on the unity of Christ. "Christ is one out of two. Two natures combine in him. There are not 2 sons." "If a man does not call Mary Theotokos, he is far from the godhead." 4) He is not clear about original sin. He says that children are innocent of sin and guilt, yet he confesses that because of Adam's Fall, he is a sinner.
Desert Mothers
Macrina, the Younger
James Kang Hoon Lee wrote in The Conversation: Unlike the fathers of the church, who are all male, four women are included among the doctors: Teresa of Ávila, a mystic famous for ecstatic visions; Catherine of Siena, who persuaded Pope Gregory XI to return the papacy to Rome from Avignon; Thérèse of Lisieux, known for her “little way” of holiness by small acts of love; and Hildegard of Bingen, a medieval German nun, scientist and composer. [Source: James Kang Hoon Lee, Associate Professor of the History of Early Christianity, Southern Methodist University, The Conversation, September 23, 2023]
For example, the fourth-century fathers Basil and Gregory of Nyssa, who were brothers, considered their older sister, Macrina the Younger, to be the greatest theologian among them. Gregory composed a treatise in her honor, “The Life of Macrina,” which depicts her as a true philosopher. A “consecrated virgin” who pledged her life to the church instead of marriage and family, Macrina led a women’s religious community and was renowned for her holiness, teaching and miraculous healings.
Her paternal grandmother, Macrina the Elder, was also a great teacher and leader who suffered persecution for being a Christian in the late third century. She was responsible for passing on the teachings of important theologians, such as Origen of Alexandria and “Gregory the Miracle-Worker.”
In addition, women exercised leadership in the growing movement known as monasticism. During the first five centuries of Christianity, many women fled from urban cities to the desert to commit themselves to lives of prayer, fasting and virtue. Known as the “desert mothers,” they were sought after for their wisdom.
Their words or sayings were collected and preserved for centuries. For example, Amma Theodora, a spiritual mother of a community of women near Alexandria in Egypt, was famous for saying that only humility, not ascetical practices such as fasting, could overcome the temptations of the devil. Likewise, “The Life of Mary of Egypt” was written about a humble, penitent woman who lived in the desert for 47 years. She was considered a model of humility, and her story was often told during Lent, a period when many Christians perform penitential practices.
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Christian Origins sourcebooks.fordham.edu “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File); “ Encyclopedia of the World’s Religions” edited by R.C. Zaehner (Barnes & Noble Books, 1959); King James Version of the Bible, gutenberg.org; New International Version (NIV) of The Bible, biblegateway.com; Christian Classics Ethereal Library (CCEL) ccel.org , Frontline, PBS, Wikipedia, BBC, National Geographic, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Live Science, Encyclopedia.com, Archaeology magazine, Reuters, Associated Press, Business Insider, AFP, Library of Congress, Lonely Planet Guides, Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.
Last updated March 2024