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ANCIENT GREEK MYTHS
Atlas and Hercules
Mythology, literature and religion were intertwined in ancient Greece and Rome. Many elements and figures in Greek religion and mythology have become important elements and icons in modern European and American culture. The word myth comes from “ mythos” , the Greek word which meant both “truth” and “word.”
Myths were popular in ancient times because they helped explain the complexities of the universe in ways that human beings could understand and also explained things in the past that no one observed directly. Myths appeared in many culture to explain things like why the sun disappeared at night and reappeared in the day; to sort out why natural disasters occur; explain what happens to people when they die; to create a credible story as how the universe and mankind were created. Because so many of things were unexplainable it was simple enough to create gods and say did the did the unexplainable things.
The myths on similar subjects—such as the coming of spring and the presence of gods in the sky — are often remarkably similar in cultures that have and never have had contact with one another. Flood stories after creation, for example are very common. By the same token, the telling of a certain myth can vary in small ways and in large between groups of a certain time period or area within a culture.
The originators of the Greek myths are unknown. The sources of many of the myths are Homer’s epics, the plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides and other writings that have been passed down over the centuries. In some cases the stories were not spelled out but have been inferred from references to them in other stories. The story of creation and other stories comes from “ Theogony” by the Greek poet Hesiod (750-675B.C.), who claims the Muses told him the story while he was tending sheep.
Book: "Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources" by Timothy Gantz (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); “Flying Snakes and Griffin Claws” by Adrienne Mayor (2022)
Websites on Ancient Greece: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Greece sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Hellenistic World sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; BBC Ancient Greeks bbc.co.uk/history/; Perseus Project - Tufts University; perseus.tufts.edu ; ; Gutenberg.org gutenberg.org; British Museum ancientgreece.co.uk; Illustrated Greek History, Dr. Janice Siegel, Hampden–Sydney College hsc.edu/drjclassics ; Cambridge Classics External Gateway to Humanities Resources web.archive.org/web; Ancient Greek Sites on the Web from Medea showgate.com/medea ; Greek History Course from Reed web.archive.org; Classics FAQ MIT classics.mit.edu
Difference Between Myths, Legends, Fables and Folktales
People sometimes use the words myth, legend, folktale and fable as though they were interchangeable, but are they? The dictionary definition of each is as follows: 1) Myth: a usually traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serves to unfold part of the world view of a people or explain a practice, belief or natural phenomenon; 2) Legend: a story coming down from the past, especially one regarded as historical although not verifiable; 3) Folktale: a characteristically anonymous, timeless and placeless tale circulated orally among a people; 4) Fable: a narration intended to enforce a useful truth especially one in which animals speak and act like human beings. (Webster’s) [Source: Canadian Museum of History |]
Jason and the Argomauts
In reviewing these definitions it is easy to see why, in casual conversations, these terms are used in an inexact fashion. A review of some of the secondary definitions adds to the confusion. A secondary definition of legend reads “a popular myth of recent origin”. Even mythology specialists openly differ on descriptions and definitions of these terms. Finding scholars who agree and disagree on the following observations should not be difficult.
The purpose of a fable is to teach some moral or principle of behavior. Aesop’s fables provide a range of such lessons (e.g. The Hare and the Tortoise = slow and steady wins the race). Fables are clearly fictitious and often contain elements of the supernatural but no mature reader would conclude that long ago these things really happened. But few would argue that fables have both entertained and enlightened children of all ages and cultures for many centuries. | “Folktales also fall into the realm of fiction. They are not based on a particular individual or incident. Animals are often involved and they often act like humans. Legends are very specific and they focus on a particular individual or incident e.g. The Legend of Paul Bunyan or the Legend of Sleepy Hollow. These stories get handed down from generation to generation but lack hard evidence to back them up. And then, there is myth. |
“There have been a lot of academic arguments over the years on what constitutes a myth. Most cultures have them and although the content varies, the characteristics are roughly the same. Firstly, a myth is the story of a people passed down through the generations and not traceable to a particular author. Secondly, there is often a kernel of truth in a myth if you look at it searchingly. Thirdly, there are often variations in the story. (A string of storytellers in different locations over the years tend to add elements that often feature their locale.) Fourthly, “the faithful” believe the myth to be true and an important part of their belief system. Fifthly, a supernatural entity almost always plays a role. Sixthly, the myth offers an answer for phenomena or events in the absence of more plausible explanations, e.g. how mankind came into existence, what causes lighting, the changing of the seasons. Myths also often break the laws of nature- Odysseus visits the Underworld, Achilles can’t be injured except in the heel, everything Midas touches turns into gold. |
Classical Greco-Roman Mythology
Greek myths, as we know them, came to us from the lips of a small number of gifted and influential poets. The stories which they have passed on to us had been evolving over generations, had been tested in the face of critical audiences and were likely written and revised numerous times until they were in their present form. Carefully examined, they reveal a lot of information about the early Greeks, compelling information to those who are their intellectual, political and artistic heirs. [Source: Canadian Museum of History |]
“We owe a debt of thanks, first and foremost, to Homer, the greatest epic poet, followed closely by Hesiod whose Theogony was a “who’s who” guide to the Greek pantheon. Pindar, (some say the greatest lyric poet ever), filled his victory odes with mythological references. The three Greek playwrights of tragedy- Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides wrote almost exclusively on mythological subjects (One of them was quick to acknowledge that he and his contemporaries “all dine on crumbs from the great table of Homer”.) Herodotus, Aristophanes, Pausanias and Apollodorus round out the list of the ten men who collectively wove the fabric that essentially is Greek mythology. |
Centaur “Classical mythology has become an integral part of our lives although few today believe in the pantheon of gods and goddesses created and sustained by the fertile imagination of the ancient Greeks. Wander into any art gallery or museum and you will see evidence of the influence of mythology on the choice of subjects. Greek painters and sculptors went to the vast warehouse of mythology to draw inspiration for countless thousands of works; now we draw inspiration from their masterpieces. Greek playwrights relied on the tragedies of mythology to entertain audiences of their generation and subsequent ones up to the present day. |
“Hollywood movies, comic books, television programs and various genres of literature have peopled their stories with characters from mythology or derivatives from them. The world of advertising has also borrowed freely from mythology using the names and attributes of gods and goddesses to sell their products and services. Look at the telephone directory to see Atlas, a symbol of strength, used to sell steel and tires; Apollo, for a music store; Aphrodite, spa and beauty services; Athena, intellectual property; Hermes, messenger services; Dionysus, wine-making supplies. The world of classical mythology lives on in the 21 st century.”
Themes and Topics in Greek
Love: According to Encyclopedia.com: Many myths deal with the loves of Zeus, who sometimes disguised himself in order to enjoy sexual relations with mortal women. Other myths present examples of trust, loyalty, and eternal love — or of the pitfalls and problems of love and desire. The tragic myth of Pyramus and Thisbe illustrates a divine reward for lovers who could not live without each other. The story of Eros and Psyche revolves around the issue of trust. In another myth, the gods reward the elderly Baucis and Philemon for their devotion to each other and their kindheartedness toward strangers. [Source Encyclopedia.com]
Love affairs in Greek myth do not always end happily One story tells how Apollo fell in love with a nymph named Daphne, but like Artemis she cared more for hunting than for love. She ran from Apollo in terror, and when he was about to seize her, she asked her father, a river god, to save her. He changed her into a laurel tree, which is why the laurel was considered Apollo's sacred tree.
Heroes: Many Greek myths focus on the marvelous achievements of heroes who possessed physical strength, sharp wits, virtue, and a sense of honor. These heroes often had a god for a father and a human for a mother. One cycle of myths concerns the hero Hercules — Zeus's son by a mortal princess — renowned for his strength and for completing 12 remarkable feats. Unlike other heroes, who died and were buried, Hercules eventually became immortal and was worshiped as a god by both Greeks and Romans. Other heroes include Perseus, who killed the serpent-haired Medusa* and rescued a princess from a sea monster; Theseus, who defeated the man-eating Minotaur of Crete; Jason, who led a band of adventurers to capture the Golden Fleece; Achilles, a mighty warrior of the Trojan War; and Odysseus, who fought at Troy and
Transformation — the act of changing from one form into another — is a common theme in Greek mythology. The gods had the power to change themselves into animals, birds, or humans and often used this power to trick goddesses or women. Zeus, for example, turned himself into a bull for one romantic adventure and into a swan for another. Sometimes the gods and goddesses transformed others, either to save them or to punish them. Daphne, for example, was changed into a laurel tree; Narcissus and Hyacinthus became the flowers that bear their names.
Underworld: Myths can give expression to a culture's ideas about death. Characters in Greek myths sometimes enter the underworld, the kingdom of the god Hades. Heroes may go there seeking advice or prophecies from the dead. Persephone, Demeter's daughter, was carried to the underworld by Hades, who fell in love with her. Her myth explains the seasons: plants grow and bear fruit while Persephone is aboveground with her mother but wither and die during the months she spends with Hades. The tale of Orpheus* and Eurydice explores the finality of death and the tempting possibility of a reunion with loved ones who have died.
Morality and Fate: Many Greek myths present visions of right and wrong behavior and the consequences of each. The myth of Baucis and Philemon, for example, illustrates the importance of hospitality and generosity toward all, for a humble stranger may be a deity in disguise with power to reward or punish. Another story tells how the handsome Narcissus, so vain and heartless that he could love only himself, drowned while gazing at his reflection in a stream. The myth of Icarus, who gains the ability to fly but soars so close to the sun that his wings melt, points out the dangers of tempting fate and rising above one's proper place in life. Such stories often involve unexpected changes or transformations. For example, the myth of King Midas, whose request for a golden touch turns his own daughter into a golden statue, warns of the perils of greed.
Like Icarus, those who claim godlike qualities, who defy the gods, or who perform outrageous acts suffer swift and severe punishment. Arachne was a mortal who boasted that she could weave better cloth than the goddess Athena, inventor of weaving. The goddess turned the boastful girl into a spider weaving its web. The gods devised eternal punishments in the depths of Hades for Sisyphus, who tried to cheat death, and for Tantalus, who killed his own son and fed him to the gods. They also punished Oedipus, who killed his father and married his mother, even though he did not know their identities when he did so.
Greco-Roman Mythology, Their Gods, Science and the Unknown
Classical mythology deals with the relationship between mankind and the gods and goddesses who inhabit the domain of the supernatural. The historian Michael Grant says that “The myths told by the Greeks and Romans are as important as history for our understanding of what these people, ancestors of our own civilization, believed and thought and felt, and expressed in writing and visual art. For their mythologies were inextricably intertwined, to an extent far beyond anything in our experience, with the whole fabric of their public and private lives.” (Grant- Myths of the Greeks and Romans)
Orpheus and Eurydice
It must be remembered that the Greeks were an intensely religious people and to them their world was filled with a host of benevolent and malevolent beings, all of whom could have an impact on their well-being. It was essential to appease and placate these restive, capricious spirits and to enlist the support of deities who would be willing to assist the supplicant in getting a plentiful crop, carrying out a military assignment or undertaking some arduous task. Naturally enough, lack of success in any of these initiatives could be attributed to a god who happened to be in a cantankerous mood or simply the result of a failure to make an offering in the prescribed manner. |
“Science was in its infancy and had yet to come up with alternative theories to explain such things as the plague, earthquakes or the changing of the seasons. If you lived in ancient Greece and believed in the existence of the deities, Apollo, Demeter and Poseidon, which of the following would seem the more logical explanation? 1) The plague is caused by animals (bacteria) too small to be seen by the human eye or the plague is caused by Apollo shooting arrows into people who had offended him; 2) -Earthquakes are caused by changes between the earth’s tectonic plates or earthquakes happen when Poseidon angrily drives his trident into the ground. 3) The change in seasons is caused by the earth tilting on its axis or Demeter is mourning until her daughter Persephone returns from the Underworld.” |
Biological Warfare in Ancient Greek Mythology
Adrienne Mayor wrote in National Geographic History: Greek myths are littered with biological warfare, from weapons tinged with poisonous Gorgons’ blood to the deadly arrows of Apollo and Artemis. Borrowing the destructive forces of nature was more than fantasy. The ancient Greeks understood that, by their very nature, biological and chemical weapons tend to be very difficult to control. Remarkably, ancient myths about the creation of biological weapons recognized the dilemmas that still surround such armaments today.
Hercules, one of the most famous heroes in Greek mythology, invented the first biological weapon recorded in Western literature. It happened during the second of his 12 labors, when he took on the Hydra, a monstrous many-headed serpent that lived in the swamps of Lerna. Brute force and ordinary weapons were powerless against the Hydra’s formidable powers. Each time Hercules cut off one of its heads, two more sprouted in its place. In the end, the only way to stop the heads’ regeneration was to cauterize the necks with burning pitch (pine resin). After the Hydra was vanquished, Hercules dipped his arrows into the monster’s poisonous blood, creating for himself a fearsome arsenal that he would use in carrying out the rest of his labors. But a chain of unintended consequences is set in motion, and these arrows bring about a very painful death for Hercules himself. [Source: Adrienne Mayor, National Geographic History, May 25, 2023]
Like the Hydra’s multiplying heads, real-life problems proliferate whenever one resorts to biological tactics. The weapons almost seem to take on a life of their own. The potential for blowback, collateral damage, and self-injury always looms. Poison and arrows were deeply intertwined in the ancient Greek language itself. The word for poison in ancient Greek, toxicon, derived from toxon, arrow. Poison arrows were by far the most popular bioweapons in antiquity. Avast variety of substances, from harmful plants and viper venom to stingray spines and toxic insect guts, have been used around the world to poison projectiles.
Satyrs, Centaurs and Other Mythical Figures
Centaurs were lusty half-man-half-horse creatures created from a union between the bloody horse Penis and the Earth Mother. The lived mostly in the forest, consumed large amounts of wine and roamed the Earth looking for young brides to carry off and rape. Once a king made the mistake of inviting a bunch of centaurs to the wedding of his daughter. They got drunk and rowdy and tried to carry away the bride When some of the kings men tried to stop them a fierce battle broke out. Not all centaur were bad. One was tutored by Apollo and in turn tutored Apollo’s children. For his efforts he was awarded with immortality and became the constellation Sagittarius.
Satyrs (known as fauns to the Romans) were horned, goat-legged spirits of forests and hills. They were evil creatures and were greatly feared by travelers. Satyr found sex pleasurable but never achieved a feeling of complete sexual satisfaction. Although they achieved orgasm they were still unsatisfied; complete physical and psychological gratification was never achieved thus they were constantly seeking new partners in the hope of finding gratification.
Damocles was a real person. He served in the court of the 4th century king of Syracuse. Once he offended the king. To get even the kinghosted a huge banquet. Damocles enjoyed himself until he looked up and saw a sword hanging over his head suspended by a single horse hair.
The sirens were the half-women, half-woman creatures that lured sailors to death with their song. Tityus, a giant found guilty of attempted rape, had his liver devoured by vultures everyday while chained to rocks only to have it grow back at night os the process could be repeated. . Arion was thrown overboard from a ship and rescued by dolphins. Philocetes, an archer of Greek mythology, was abandoned on an island because of the repulsive wound that would not heal.
Pegasus, Griffins and Chimera
griffin The Chimera was a fire-breathing monster with the a lion’s head, a goat’s body and a serpent’s tail. According to legend, it was slain in by the hero Bellerophon, mounted on Pegasus. Pegasus was a winged horse that sprang from the body of Medusa. Once Bellerophon wanted to be carried heaven. Pegasus obliged. On the way he was stung by an insect sent by the gods. Bellerophon was thrown and landed on earth, alive but lamed and blind. Pegasus was placed among the stars and became a constellation.
Griffins have the head and body of a lion, wings and beak of an eagle and the tail of a serpent or lion. Stories about griffons originated with Scythian horsemen in Central Asia. They described griffons as “lions but with beak and wings of an eagle” and said they nested on the ground over deposits of gold. Many of images of winged monsters and fighting animals reached Greece by way of ivory carvings and metal work from Phoenician and Syria.
The basilisk was originally a snake that was so horrible just looking at it killed a man. Pliny the Elder described it as small golden snake with a golden crown. In the Middle Age became a snake with the head of rooter or a human.
According to Greek legend, spiders were created when the a seamstress named Arachne challenged the goddess Athena to a contest. Later the weaver was ashamed of her impunity and hung herself. Athena felt sorry for her and brought her back to life as a spider and her noose was made into a web. Her name was also given to the scientists who study spiders (arachnologists), the fear of them (arachanaphobia) and the class of animals (Arachnida).
Ancient Greek Mythical Beasts and Monsters
Beasts found in Greek mythology include centaurs, satyrs, griffons and dragons. There are number of giants and semi-human, larger-than-life beings. They include Atlas, the Titan who holds up the world, and Polyphemus, the cyclops who liked to eat people, and other Titans. Arguably the greatest of them all was the Pelops. Described as having shoulder blades made of ivory, he is said to have created the Olympic games to thank the gods after winning a rigged chariot race. He ruled over Greece’s southern peninsula — the Peloponnese, which means “Pelops island.”
Most ancient Greek monsters had the same mother. Debra Kelly wrote in Listverse:Her name is Echidna. Half-woman and half-serpent, Echidna is the daughter of Phorcys and Ceto, making her another sister of Medusa. (Other accounts say she was born of Tartarus, the underworld, and Gaia, the earth.) Tartarus and Gaia were the parents of Echidna’s husband, Typhon, a hundred-headed dragon. Together, Echidna and Typhon spawned a whole list of horrifying monsters that would challenge heroes and gods alike. Hercules tangled with her children the Nemean lion; Cerberus, Hades’s three-headed dog; the many-headed hydra; and Ladon, the dragon that protected the Golden Apples of the Hesperides. She was also the mother to the Chimera, the Sphinx, Scylla the sea monster, the Colchian dragon, and the eagle that ate Prometheus’s liver every day in his eternal punishment for stealing fire from the gods. [Source Debra Kelly, Listverse, December 17, 2013]
Evidence of the Existence of Ancient Greek Mythical Beasts?
Adrienne Mayor, an independent folklorist, believes that some of the beasts and giants in Greek mythology may have been based on fossils of dinosaurs and prehistoric mammals found in ancient Greece and other places familiar to the Greeks.
Mayor bases her theory on: 1) the fact that the locations of Greek myths are often rich in fossils; 2) a head of an unusual monster depicted on Corinthian vase that looks just like a skull of an extinct giraffe, whose bones are commonly found on Greek islands and Asia Minor; 3) mastodon bones found on the island of Samos, where giants are said to have lived, can be arranged to look like the bones of giants; 4) skeletons of “Protoceretops” (dinosaurs) found in Central Asia match descriptions of griffons, who first described by Scythian horsemen who lived there and passed on to the Greeks.
Centaur skeleton A temple in Olympia was said to have a relic of the mighty giant — a massive shoulder blade. During the Trojan War it was reportedly shipped to the walls of Troy to bring good luck. Greek chroniclers, including Herodotus, described seeing the remains of giants. Mayor believes the Greeks were not making this up and what they were describing were bones of prehistoric animals such as mastodon or mammoth, whose skeletons when placed upright could very easily pass as the skeleton of a giant. She told National Geographic, “Since the 19th century, modern paleontologists have discovered rich bone beds of giant extinct mammals in the same places the ancient Greeks reported finding bones of heroes and giants.” The Aztec had similar ideas about the fossilized mammoth and mastodon bones they found.
Mayor also said, the Greeks “found fossil ivory tusks from extinct mammoths in the ground and assumed the ivory was produced by the Earth, like gems and minerals. In fact, the ancient Greeks word for ivory, “elephas”, was the name they gave to elephants once they did encounter them.” This first encounter probably occurred in the 4th century B.C. When Alexander the Great’s army faced a force of Persian war elephants.
Influences of Greek Mythology
According to Encyclopedia.com: Greek mythology has profoundly influenced Western culture. So universally familiar are its stories that words and sayings refer to them. The myth of Narcissus, for example, produced narcissism, or excessive vanity, and something that causes an argument may be called an "apple of discord," after an apple that Eris, the goddess of discord, used to start a dispute among Athena, Aphrodite, and Hera. Greek myths and legends span the sky in the names of constellations and planets.
Literature and drama have long drawn upon themes and stories from Greek myth. Besides the works of the ancient Greeks themselves — including the plays of Sophocles and Euripides — writers from ancient times to the present have found inspiration in Greek mythology. Roman authors Virgil (the Aeneid) and Ovid (the Metamorphoses) used Greek stories and characters in their poems. References to Greek myths appear in the works of the medieval Italian poets Petrarch and Boccaccio and in those of the English poet Chaucer. Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream contains the story of Pyramus and Thisbe as a comic play-within-a-play. Modern writers who have drawn upon Greek mythology include James Joyce (Ulysses) and Mary Renault (The Bull from the Sea).
Artists from the Renaissance to the present have depicted scenes from Greek mythology. Botticelli's Birth of Venus (ca. 1480), Poussin's Apollo and Daphne (ca. 1630), and Renoir's Diana (1867) are just a few of many such paintings. The Greeks chanted songs and hymns based on myth at religious festivals, and Greek mythology has continued to inspire composers of the performing arts. Operas based on mythic stories include Monteverdi's Ariadne, Strauss's Elektra, and Offenbach's Orpheus in the Underworld. Marcel Camus' film Black Orpheus also came from the story of Orpheus and Eurydice. Apollo and Orpheus by Balanchine, Ariadne by Ailey, and Clytemnestra by Graham are four modern ballets that interpret Greek myths through dance.
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons, The Louvre, The British Museum
Text Sources: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Greece sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Hellenistic World sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; BBC Ancient Greeks bbc.co.uk/history/; Canadian Museum of History, Perseus Project - Tufts University; perseus.tufts.edu ; MIT Classics Online classics.mit.edu ; Gutenberg.org, Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Live Science, Discover magazine, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, Encyclopædia Britannica, "The Discoverers" and "The Creators" by Daniel Boorstin. "Greek and Roman Life" by Ian Jenkins from the British Museum, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP and various books and other publications.
Last updated September 2024