Alexander’s Empire after His Death: Struggle, Division, the Seleucids | Early European History And Religion

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DIVISION OF ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE AFTER HIS DEATH

Dying Alexander the Great

After Alexander died, his empire was divided among four of his generals. These generals spent 40 years fighting among themselves before three main dynasties merged: 1) the Antigonids of Asia Minor and Greece, a region referred to as Macedon; 2) the Ptolemies in Egypt (which included Cleopatra); and 3) the Selecuids, who occupied a stretch of land that extended from present-day Syria and Lebanon to Persia. Seleucus, one of these generals, who became ruler of Babylon in 312 B.C., gradually reconquered most of Iran. Under Seleucus's son, Antiochus I, many Greeks entered Iran, and Hellenistic motifs in art, architecture, and urban planning became prevalent. [Source: Library of Congress]

The Egyptian portion of Alexander’s kingdom was ultimately claimed by Ptolemy I, a Macedonian general and friend of Alexander since his early days. He served with Alexander from his first campaigns, and was the first ruler of the Ptolemy dynasty. He played a principal part in the campaigns in Afghanistan and India and participated in the Battle of Issus, commanding troops on the left wing under the authority of Parmenion. He accompanied Alexander during his journey to the Oracle in the Siwa Oasis and commanded the campaign that captured the rebel Bessus. During Alexander's campaign in the Indian subcontinent, Ptolemy was in command of the advance guard at the siege of Aornos and fought at the Battle of the Hydaspes River. [Source: Wikipedia]

It took almost two generations of war for Ptolemies, the Seleucids and the Antigonid kings of Macedon to archieve a sustainable political and military balance. By this time Athens had faded as a political force, but Pergamum, Rhodes, Delos, Pontus on the Black Sea were all independent rising powers. Bactrian Greek rulers broke away from the Seleucid empire around 240 B.C. and held Afghanistan and parts of northwestern Pakistan and India and Central Asia for over a hundred years. The Parthians, whose era began in 247 B.C. were beginning to build up their power, which was to stretch from the Euphrates to the Indus.

The Ptolemies — the Macedonian-Greek dynasty founded by Ptolemy I — was arguably the most successful of the post-Alexander kingdoms. It ruled Egypt for more than 300 years. There were 15 Ptolemic leaders and they ruled from 332 B.C. to 30 B.C. from Alexandria. Cleopatra was the last of Ptolemies. When she died in 30 B.C., Romans took over territory formally controlled by the Ptolemies.

Websites: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook Hellenistic World sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Perseus Project - Tufts University; perseus.tufts.edu ; ; Gutenberg.org gutenberg.org; Illustrated Greek History, Dr. Janice Siegel, Hampden–Sydney College hsc.edu/drjclassics ; Cambridge Classics External Gateway to Humanities Resources web.archive.org/web; Ancient Greek Sites on the Web from Medea showgate.com/medea ; Greek History Course from Reed web.archive.org

Book: "Dividing the Spoils: 'The War for Alexander the Great's Empire" by Robin Waterfield, an independent scholar with a background in classics, (Oxford University Press, 2011); "Ghost on the Throne: The Death of Alexander the Great and the War for Crown and Empire" by James Romm, a professor of classics at Bard College in New York (Knopf, 2011).

What Was Happening in Macedonia During Alexander the Great’s March of Conquest

Olympias on Roman medallion, AD 225-250

After Philip II was assassinated Alexander quickly eliminated all Macedonian rivals and defeated all Greek attempts to overthrow Macedonian dominance. He had Attalus killed, and Olympias — with or without Alexander’s knowledge — had Philip’s new wife and baby killed. In 334 Alexander led a combined Greek and Macedonian force to Asia, leaving the general Antipater behind in apparent control of the Greek peninsula. Olympias remained in Macedonia and Alexander’s sister Cleopatra, still married to her uncle, resided in Molossia. During the absence of Alexander, with whom she regularly corresponded on public as well as domestic affairs, she had great influence, and by her arrogance and ambition caused such trouble to the regent Antipater that on Alexander's death in 323 B.C. she found it prudent to withdraw into Epirus. [Source: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911]

Elizabeth Carney wrote in National Geographic History: As Alexander’s victories accumulated, Alexander sent plunder home to Olympias, and she made splendid dedications in his honor at Delphi and Athens. Tradition says that she offered advice to her son while he was away and warned him of threats. Chief among those was Antipater. (For centuries, the Oracle at Delphi attracted the powerful who sought answers from the gods). [Source: Elizabeth Carney, National Geographic History, December 4, 2019]

Antipater, meanwhile, was also complaining to Alexander, with equal vehemence, about Olympias. Each seems to have thought that the other was overstepping their position. Ancient authors describe Olympias as difficult and assertive and insist that Alexander tolerated his mother but did not let her affect policy. At least not at first; toward the end of his reign it was different. By 330 B.C. quarrels with Antipater forced Olympias to retreat to Molossia. Olympias was a grandmother now: Her daughter Cleopatra had borne a son and daughter. Around 334 B.C. Cleopatra’s husband left for a military expedition to Italy and died there. Cleopatra served as guardian and probably as regent for her young son, possibly sharing power with Olympias.

Meanwhile, Antipater’s relationship with Alexander deteriorated, and by 325, after Alexander’s return from India, rebellion began to spread in Alexander’s realms. Seizing the moment, Olympias and Cleopatra formed a faction against Antipater. Plutarch claimed that they divided rule between them, with Olympias taking Epirus, and Cleopatra Macedonia, but the true details of this arrangement remain unclear.

According to Plutarch, Alexander congratulated his mother on having made the better choice since the Macedonians would never endure being ruled by a woman. Not long after, Alexander ordered Antipater to turn his position over and meet him in Babylon. When, months later in June 323, Alexander died in Babylon, Antipater was still in his old position, though several of his sons, including Alexander’s cupbearer, were with Alexander. His sudden death made many, including Olympias, suspect that Antipater’s family had poisoned him. Historians doubt that Alexander was murdered, but as with the death of Philip, little can be certain.

Who Was Meant to Inherit Alexander the Great’s Empire?

When Alexander the Great was on his deathbed in 323 B.C., his generals reportedly asked who was going to inherit his throne. "To the strongest," Alexander said, according to historians. "And, of course, they all started fighting about who the strongest was," Philip Freeman, a professor of classics at Luther College in Decorah, Iowa, and author of the book, "Alexander the Great", told Live Science. "Pretty much right away his generals started fighting over who got his empire, and they divided it up." [Source Laura Geggel, Live Science February 10, 2015]

Laura Geggel wrote in Live Science: With his passing, Alexander the Great left an unborn son and a crowd of ambitious generals. His generals eagerly filled the power vacuum, and his rivals killed his son before the boy's 12th birthday. However, it's possible that Alexander didn't mean to express uncertainty about his successor and rather meant to hand his kingdom to his general Perdiccas, said James Romm, a professor of classics at Bard College in New York and author of the book, "Ghost on the Throne: The Death of Alexander the Great and the War for Crown and Empire" .

But within two or three years of Alexander's death, while trying to attack Ptolemy's kingdom in Egypt, Perdiccas was killed by his own officers. "He didn't do a very good job, and he didn't last very long," Romm said. Perdiccas' death highlights the fact that Alexander's demise led to an inevitable struggle for control. "There was no one to whom he [Alexander] could pass power to that would have been able to hold the empire together," Romm said. "In the absence of a royal heir, there really was no one."

Olympias After Alexander the Great’s Death

After Alexander the Great’s death in 323 B.C., Olympias remained in Epirus until 317, when, allying herself with Polyperchon, by whom her old enemy had been succeeded in 319, she took the field with an Epirote army; the opposing troops at once declared in her favour, and for a short period Olympias was mistress of Macedonia. [Source: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911]

Cassander ordering the death of Olympias by Jean-Joseph Taillasson, 1799

Elizabeth Carney wrote in National Geographic History: The death of her son left Olympias in a precarious position. Alexander left behind no obvious heir. It was decided that the unborn child of Roxanne, one of Alexander’s wives, would co-rule with Alexander’s half brother, the mentally disabled Philip III Arrhidaeus, and a regent would be appointed. Roxanne gave birth to a boy, Alexander IV, but succession would be anything but smooth. [Source: Elizabeth Carney, National Geographic History, December 4, 2019]

Alexander’s generals, “the successors,” fought fiercely among themselves to establish control over the empire. They broke into competing factions, each one controlling a different region. Antipater managed to hold on to Macedonia, and Olympias kept a safe distance in Molossia. Without Alexander, Olympias needed military protection from her family. Aeacides, Olympias’s nephew, seems to have become co-king with Alexander IV, Olympias’s young grandson, around this time.

Antipater died in 319, and the new regent, Polyperchon, urged Olympias to return to Macedonia to care for her grandson Alexander IV. Antipater had passed over his own son, Cassander, and named Polyperchon as his successor. The two men were at odds, and Polyperchon knew an alliance with Olympias could be useful. She refused for several years, not trusting any of the successors, but relented out of fear that Philip III Arrhidaeus and his Argead wife, Adea Eurydice (allies with Cassander), would kill Alexander IV.

War Between Women and Olympias’s Demise

Cassander, Antipater's son, hastened from Peloponnesus, and, after an obstinate siege, compelled the surrender of Pydna, where Olympias had taken refuge. One of the terms of the capitulation had been that her life should be spared; but in spite of this she was brought to trial for the numerous and cruel executions of which she had been guilty during her short lease of power. Condemned without a hearing, she was put to death in 316 B.C. by the friends of those whom she had slain, and Cassander is said to have denied her remains the rites of burial. [Source: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911]

Elizabeth Carney wrote in National Geographic History: In fall of 317, Olympias appeared in Macedonia at the head of an army with Polyperchon and her nephew Aeacides, and Adea Eurydice met her with her forces: Greek historian Duris of Samos called it the first war between women. Supposedly Olympias dressed as a Bacchant, and when the Macedonian army saw her, it threw its support to her. She killed Philip and Adea Eurydice, as well as a number of Cassander’s supporters. [Source: Elizabeth Carney, National Geographic History, December 4, 2019]

Olympias’s success did not last because Polyperchon proved a bad general and Cassander an excellent one. His victories eroded public support for Olympias and Alexander IV. Cassander besieged Olympias at Pydna, as we said before and Olympias was executed. Olympias went to her death with courage. The Argead dynasty, for practical purposes, ended with her death, although Cassander waited a few years before he murdered Alexander IV.

Death of Alexander's Son, Wife and Half-Brother

Before his death, Alexander's troops, concerned he was already dead, demanded to see him. Arrian wrote: "Nothing could keep them from the sight of him, and the motive in almost every heart was grief of a sort of helpless bewilderment at the thought of losing their king. Lying speechless as the men filed by, he struggled to raise his head, and in his eyes there was a look of recognition for each individual he passed."

Roxana with Alexander IV Aegus, Alexander the Great's son

Roxanne, Alexander the Great’s wife, and her son, Alexander IV, born six weeks after Alexander's death were murdered by a distant relative when the boy was 12 or “Roxana, who was now with child, and upon that account much honored by the Macedonians, being jealous of Statira, sent for her by a counterfeit letter, as if Alexander had been still alive; and when she had her in her power, killed her and her sister, and threw their bodies into a well, which they filled up with earth, not without the privity and assistance of Perdiccas, who in the time immediately following the king's death, under cover of the name of Arrhidæus, whom he carried about him as a sort of guard to his person, exercised the chief authority. Arrhidæus, who was Philip's son by an obscure woman of the name of Philinna, was himself of weak intellect, not that he had been originally deficient either in body or mind; on the contrary, in his childhood, he had showed a happy and promising character enough. But a diseased habit of body, caused by drugs which Olympias gave him, had ruined not only his health, but his understanding. [Source: Plutarch (A.D. 45-127), “Life of Alexander”, A.D. 75 translated by John Dryden, 1906, MIT, Online Library of Liberty, oll.libertyfund.org ]

Philip III Arrhidaios — Alexander the Great's half-brother and successor — and his young warrior-queen wife Eurydice, were respectively killed and forced to commit suicide by Olympias, Philip III's stepmother and Alexander's mother. Historical texts say that Philip II was buried, exhumed, burned and re-buried: A royal tomb found in Greece containing the burned bones of a man and a young woman, some scholar believe, could belong to Philip III and Eurydice. Others say the entombed man is probably Philip II, Alexander the Great's father, making the woman in the tomb Cleopatra, Philip II's last wife (She is different from the famous Cleopatra). This Cleopatra also met a tragic end. She was either killed or forced to commit suicide by Olympias. Scholars are still debating issues whether the bones were burned dry or covered in flesh and viscera. [Source: Stephanie Pappas, Live Science, April 8, 2011]

Partition of Babylon and the Division of Alexander’s Empire

At the Partition of Babylon in 323 B.C., rulers split the empire into sections: 1) Greece, Macedonia and southeastern Europe; 2) Asia Minor (present-day Turkey); and 3) northern Africa a third. Western and central Asia went to other rulers. Ptolemy, a Macedonian general who served with Alexander, created a separate empire in northern Africa and southern Syria. At first, Ptolemy ruled as an appointed leader, but in 305 B.C., he declared himself king. The Ptolemaic dynasty ruled for 275 years, from 305 B.C. to Cleopatra VII's passing in 30 B.C. [Source Laura Geggel, Live Science February 10, 2015]

The Partition of Babylon was the first of the conferences and agreements that divided the territories of Alexander the Great. It was held at Babylon a few days after Alexander died. The issue of succession resulted from the claims of by the supporters of Philip Arrhidaeus (Alexander’s half-brother), the as-of-then unborn child of Alexander and Roxana, and others. The settlement saw Arrhidaeus and Alexander’s child designated as joint kings with Perdiccas serving as regent. [Source Wikipedia]

The territories of the empire became satrapies divided between the senior officers of the Macedonian army and some local governors and rulers. The partition was solidified at the further agreements at Triparadisus in 321 B.C. and Persepolis over the following years and began the series of conflicts that comprise the Wars of the Diadochi. Territorial boundaries remained an issue until around 300 B.C.

The events of the Partition of Babylon began on the day of Alexander’s death when the Somatophylakes (elite bodyguards) announced a council, to which they invited the main Hetairoi (officers of the cavalry) and the line officers of the infantry, to be held at the royal quarters. Disobeying orders and ignoring the invitation list, the common soldiers pushed their way in, displacing many officers. Yielding to the inevitable, the somatophylakes allowed them to stay and to vote at the council. Voting was by voice, except for beating on the shield with the spear, which signified "nay".

Struggle for Power Between Alexander’s Generals After His Death

Seleucus I, Macedonian general of Alexander the Great and founder of the Seleucid Empire

When Alexander was on his deathbed he was asked to name a successor. Arrian reported he said the empire should go “to the strongest. I foresee a great funeral contest over me." The account which follows deals with the troubled period after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. when the generals Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus and Cassander fought among themselves over the division of the empire.

Pausanias wrote in “Description of Greece”, Book I: Attica (A.D. 160): “After the death of Alexander, by withstanding those who would have conferred all his empire upon Aridaeus, the son of Philip, he became chiefly responsible for the division of the various nations into the kingdoms. He crossed over to Egypt in person, and killed Cleomenes, whom Alexander had appointed satrap of that country, considering him a friend of Perdiccas, and therefore not faithful to himself; and the Macedonians who had been entrusted with the task of carrying the corpse of Alexander to Aegae, he persuaded to hand it over to him. And he proceeded to bury it with Macedonian rites in Memphis, but, knowing that Perdiccas would make war, he kept Egypt garrisoned. And Perdiccas took Aridaeus, son of Philip, and the boy Alexander, whom Roxana, daughter of Oxyartes, had borne to Alexander, to lend color to the campaign, but really he was plotting to take from Ptolemy his kingdom in Egypt. But being expelled from Egypt, and having lost his reputation as a soldier, and being in other respects unpopular with the Macedonians, he was put to death by his body guard. [Source: Pausanias, “Description of Greece,” with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D. in 4 Volumes. Volume 1.Attica and Cornith, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd., 1918]

“The death of Perdiccas immediately raised Ptolemy to power, who both reduced the Syrians and Phoenicia, and also welcomed Seleucus, son of Antiochus, who was in exile, having been expelled by Antigonus; he further himself prepared to attack Antigonus. He prevailed on Cassander, son of Anti pater, and Lysimachus, who was king in Thrace, to join in the war, urging that Seleucus was in exile and that the growth of the power of Antigonus was dangerous to them all.

Ptolemy I, Macedonian general of Alexander the Great and founder of the Ptolemic Empire

For a time Antigonus prepared for war, and was by no means confident of the issue; but on learning that the revolt of Cyrene had called Ptolemy to Libya, he immediately reduced the Syrians and Phoenicians by a sudden inroad, handed them over to Demetrius, his son, a man who for all his youth had already a reputation for good sense, and went down to the Hellespont. But he led his army back without crossing, on hearing that Demetrius had been overcome by Ptolemy in battle. But Demetrius had not altogether evacuated the country before Ptolemy, and having surprised a body of Egyptians, killed a few of them. Then on the arrival of Antigonus Ptolemy did not wait for him but returned to Egypt.

“When the winter was over, Demetrius sailed to Cyprus and overcame in a naval action Menelaus, the satrap of Ptolemy, and afterwards Ptolemy him self, who had crossed to bring help. Ptolemy fled to Egypt, where he was besieged by Antigonus on land and by Demetrius with a fleet. In spite of his extreme peril Ptolemy saved his empire by making a stand with an army at Pelusium while offering resistance with warships from the river. Antigonus now abandoned all hope of reducing Egypt in the circumstances, and dispatched Demetrius against the Rhodians with a fleet and a large army, hoping, if the island were won, to use it as a base against the Egyptians. But the Rhodians displayed daring and ingenuity in the face of the besiegers, while Ptolemy helped them with all the forces he could muster. Antigonus thus failed to reduce Egypt or, later, Rhodes, and shortly afterwards he offered battle to Lysimachus, and to Cassander and the army of Seleucus, lost most of his forces, and was himself killed, having suffered most by reason of the length of the war with Eumenes. Of the kings who put down Antigonus I hold that the most wicked was Cassander, who although he had recovered the throne of Macedonia with the aid of Antigonus, nevertheless came to fight against a benefactor.

“After the death of Antigonus, Ptolemy again reduced the Syrians and Cyprus, and also restored Pyrrhus to Thesprotia on the mainland. Cyrene rebelled; but Magas, the son of Berenice (who was at this time married to Ptolemy) captured Cyrene in the fifth year of the rebellion. If this Ptolemy really was the son of Philip, son of Amyntas, he must have inherited from his father his passion for women, for, while wedded to Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater, although he had children he took a fancy to Berenice, whom Antipater had sent to Egypt with Eurydice. He fell in love with this woman and had children by her, and when his end drew near he left the kingdom of Egypt to Ptolemy (from whom the Athenians name their tribe) being the son of Berenice and not of the daughter of Antipater.

Antigonus I

“This Ptolemy fell in love with Arsinoe, his full sister, and married her, violating herein Macedonian custom, but following that of his Egyptian subjects. Secondly he put to death his brother Argaeus, who was, it is said, plotting against him; and he it was who brought down from Memphis the corpse of Alexander. He put to death another brother also, son of Eurydice, on discovering that he was creating disaffection among the Cyprians. Then Magas, the half-brother of Ptolemy, who had been entrusted with the governorship of Cyrene by his mother Berenice--she had borne him to Philip, a Macedonians but of no note and of lowly origin--induced the people of Cyrene to revolt from Ptolemy and marched against Egypt.

“Ptolemy fortified the entrance into Egypt and awaited the attack of the Cyrenians. But while on the march Magas was in formed that the Marmaridae,a tribe of Libyan nomads, had revolted, and thereupon fell back upon Cyrene. Ptolemy resolved to pursue, but was checked owing to the following circumstance. When he was preparing to meet the attack of Magas, he engaged mercenaries, including some four thousand Gauls. Discovering that they were plotting to seize Egypt, he led them through the river to a deserted island. There they perished at one another's hands or by famine. Magas, who was married to Apame, daughter of Antiochus, son of Seleucus, persuaded Antiochus to break the treaty which his father Seleucus had made with Ptolemy and to attack Egypt.

When Antiochus resolved to attack, Ptolemy dispatched forces against all the subjects of Antiochus, freebooters to overrun the lands of the weaker, and an army to hold back the stronger, so that Antiochus never had an opportunity of attacking Egypt. I have already stated how this Ptolemy sent a fleet to help the Athenians against Antigonus and the Macedonians, but it did very little to save Athens. His children were by Arsinoe, not his sister, but the daughter of Lysimachus. His sister who had wedded him happened to die before this, leaving no issue, and there is in Egypt a district called Arsinoites after her.”

Lysimachus, A General Who Didn’t Get a Cut of the Empire

Lysimachus

Pausanias wrote in “Description of Greece”, Book I: Attica (A.D. 160): “Lysimachus was a Macedonian by birth and one of Alexander's body-guards, whom Alexander once in anger shut up in a chamber with a lion, and afterwards found that he had overpowered the brute. Henceforth he always treated him with respect, and honored him as much as the noblest Macedonians. After the death of Alexander, Lysimachus ruled such of the Thracians, who are neighbors of the Macedonians, as had been under the sway of Alexander and before him of Philip. These would comprise but a small part of Thrace. If race be compared with race no nation of men except the Celts are more numerous than the Thracians taken all together, and for this reason no one before the Romans reduced the whole Thracian population. But the Romans have subdued all Thrace, and they also hold such Celtic territory as is worth possessing, but they have intentionally overlooked the parts that they consider useless through excessive cold or barrenness. [Source: Pausanias, “Description of Greece,” with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D. in 4 Volumes. Volume 1.Attica and Cornith, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd., 1918]

“Since Lysimachus, then, overlooked Arsinoe's murder of Agathocles, Lysandra fled to Seleucus, taking with her her children and her brothers, who were taking refuge with Ptolemy and finally adopted this course. They were accompanied on their flight to Seleucus by Alexander who was the son of Lysimachus by an Odrysian woman. So they going up to Babylon entreated Seleucus to make war on Lysimachus. And at the same time Philetaerus, to whom the property of Lysimachus had been entrusted, aggrieved at the death of Agathocles and suspicious of the treatment he would receive at the hands of Arsinoe, seized Pergamus on the Caicus, and sending a herald offered both the property and himself to Seleucus.

“Lysimachus hearing of all these things lost no time in crossing into Asia and assuming the initiative met Seleucus, suffered a severe defeat and was killed. Alexander, his son by the Odrysian woman, after interceding long with Lysandra, won his body and afterwards carried it to the Chersonesus and buried it, where his grave is still to be seen between the village of Cardia and Pactye.”

Rulers of Alexander the Great’s Divided Empire After His Death

According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: “The following abridged list of rulers for the ancient Greek world is primarily for the rulers of the Hellenistic age (323–31 B.C.), after the time of Alexander the Great. In the preceding centuries, the dominant geopolitical unit was the polis or city-state. Greek city-states were governed by a variety of entities, including kings, oligarchies, tyrants, and, as in the case of Athens, a democracy. [Source: Department of Greek and Roman Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2004, metmuseum.org \^/]

Rulers of Macedonia After Alexander the Great
Philip III Arrhidaios (323–317 B.C.)
Alexander IV (323–310 B.C.)
Olympias (317–316 B.C.)
Cassander (315–297 B.C.)
Philip IV (297 B.C.)
Antipatros and Alexander V (297–294 B.C.)
Demetrios I Poliorketes ("Besieger") (294–288 B.C.)
Pyrrhos of Epeiros (288/7–285 B.C.)
Lysimachos (288/7–281 B.C.)
Seleukus (281 B.C.)
Ptolemaios Keraunos ("Thunderbolt") (281–279 B.C.)
Antigonos II Gonatas (ca. (277–239 B.C.)
Demetrios II (239–229 B.C.)
Antigonos III Doson (ca. (229–222 B.C.)
Philip V (222–179 B.C.)
Perseus (179–168 B.C.)

Ptolemy III

Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt (306–30 B.C.)
Ptolemy I Soter ("Savior"; governor from 323) 306–282 B.C.)
Ptolemy II Philadelphos ("Sister-friend") (284–246 B.C.)
Ptolemy III Euergetes ("Benefactor") (246–222 B.C.)
Ptolemy IV Philopator ("Father-friend") (222–204 B.C.)
Ptolemy V Epiphanes ("[God] Manifest") (210–180 B.C.)
Cleopatra I (180–177 B.C.)
Ptolemy VI Philometor ("Mother-friend") (180–164, (163–145 B.C.
Cleopatra II (170–115 B.C.)
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physkon ("Potbelly") (170–163, (145–116 B.C.)
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator (with Ptolemy VI and briefly after the latter's death) (145–144 B.C.)
Ptolemy IX Soter II Lathyros ("the Bean") (116–107, 88–81 B.C.)
Cleopatra III (140–101 B.C.)
Ptolemy X Alexander I (107–88 B.C.)
Berenike III (100–80 B.C.)
Ptolemy XI Alexander II 80 B.C.)
Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Auletes ("the Piper") (80–58, 55–51 B.C.)

Mithridates I

Cleopatra V (80–69 B.C.)
Berenike IV and Cleopatra VI (58–55 B.C.)
Ptolemy XIII (51–47 B.C.)
Cleopatra VII (51–30 B.C.)
Ptolemy XIV (47–44 B.C.)
Caesarion (Ptolemy XV) 44–30 B.C.)

Rulers of Pontus in the Black Sea Area (ca. 280–63 B.C.)
Mithridates I (ca. 280–ca. 266 B.C.)
Ariobarzanes (ca. 266–ca. 255 B.C.)
Mithridates II (ca. 255–ca. 220 B.C.)
Mithridates III (ca. 220–ca. 185 B.C.)
Pharnaces I (ca. 185–ca. 170 B.C.)
Mithridates IV Philopator (ca. 170–ca. 150 B.C.)
Mithridates V Euergetes (ca. 150–120 B.C.)
Mithridates VI Eupator, "the Great" (ca. 120–63 B.C.)

Diodotus I

Rulers of Baktria in Afghanistan and Central Asia (256–55 B.C.)
Diodotos I (256–248 B.C.)
Diodotos II (248–235 B.C.)
Euthydemos I (ca. 235–ca. 200 B.C.)
Euthydemos II (ca. 200–ca. 190 B.C.)
Demetrios I (ca. 200–ca. 185 B.C.)
Antimachos I (ca. 195–ca. 185 B.C.)
Pantaleon (ca. 185–ca. 180 B.C.)
Demetrios II (ca. 185–ca. 175 B.C.)
Agathokles (ca. 180–ca. 165 B.C.)
Eukratides I (usurper?) (ca. 171–ca. 155 B.C.)
Agathokleia and Menandros (ca. 155–ca. 130 B.C.)
Kalliope and Hermaios (ca. 75–ca. 55 B.C.)

Seleucid Kings

The Seleucid Empire, the largest of the kingdoms that succeeded Alexander the Great’s short-lived empire. Until quite recently, the chronology of the kings was for the most part based on classical sources, but the publication of the Astronomical Diaries, other cuneiform sources, and studies of the number of coin dies, have generated a lot of new information. [Source: Livius.org]

Seleucid Prince

“The dynasty can be divided into five sections. The main branchstarted with Seleucus I Nicator (r.311-281 B.C.), and remained essentially unchallenged until the revolt of Alexander Balas in 152. He and his sons were rivals until 123 B.C. . Their presence was a serious obstacle for the kings of the main line who had to cope with Parthian aggression in the east; much territory was lost. Cleopatra Thea and Antiochus VIII Grypus briefly reunited the remains of the Seleucid Empire, but the dynasty fell apart in two rival branches, a northern one and a southern one.

Almost perennial civil wars made the Seleucid Empire, which had once been the largest in the world, helpless against local revolts. In 74/73 B.C., the remains were taken over by Armenia, which lost them for years later; after a couple of years of in dependence, the last Seleucid ruler was overthrown in 65 B.C.

“Seleucus I Nicator1(June 311-September 281 B.C.)
Antiochus I Soter (September 281-2 June 261 B.C.)
Antiochus II Theos (2 June 261-early July 246 B.C.)
Seleucus II Callinicus (July/August 246-December 225 B.C.)
Seleucus III Keraunos (or Soter) (December 225-April-June 222 B.C.)
Antiochus III the Great (April-June 222-3 July 187 B.C.)
Seleucus IV Philopator (3 July 187-3 September 175 B.C.)
Antiochus IV Epiphanes (3 September 175-November/December 164 B.C.)
Antiochus V Eupator (November/December 164-after 29 October 162 B.C.)
Demetrius I Soter (before September/October 161-beginning of June 150 B.C.)
Alexander I Balas (summer 152-beginning of August 145 B.C.)

Demetrius II Nicator (first reign, before 8 September 145-July/August 138 B.C.)
Antiochus VI Dionysus (or Epiphanes, 145/144-141/140 B.C.)
Diodotus Tryphon (141/140-after August 138 B.C.)
Antiochus VII Sidetes (or Euergetes, July/August 138-after 20 May 129 B.C.)
Demetrius II Nicator (second reign, first months of 129-after March 125 B.C.)
Alexander II Zabinas (129-123 B.C.)
Cleopatra Thea (125 B.C.)
Seleucus V (125 B.C.)

Cleopatra Thea and Antiochus VIII Grypus (125-121 B.C.)
Antiochus VIII Grypus (121-96 B.C.)
Antiochus IX Cyzicenus (115-early 95 B.C.)
Demetrius III Eucaerus (or Philopator, 97/96-87 B.C.)
Seleucus VI Epiphanes Nicator (96-94 B.C.)
Antiochus XI Epiphanes Philadelphus (c.95-93/92 B.C.)
Philip I Philadelphus (c.95-c.75 B.C.)
Antiochus X Eusebes Philopator (early 95-c.88 B.C.)
Antiochus XII Dionysus (87-83/82 B.C.)
Tigranes II the Great of Armenia (74/73-69 B.C.)
Antiochus XIII Asiaticus (69-64 B.C.)
Philip II Philoromaeus (67/66-66/65 B.C.)

What If Alexander the Great Left His Empire to One Person?

Laura Geggel wrote in Live Science: What if Alexander had explicitly left his kingdom to one person? Could this person have further expanded his empire, or at least continued to keep it together despite its incredible size? It's unlikely the empire would have expanded, historians say. Lacking Alexander's charisma and acumen, it's doubtful any single general could have carried on in Alexander's place, following his death at age 32."If one person had managed to gain immediate control of the empire, it probably would have fallen apart," Freeman told Live Science. "There was nobody there who had the skill, intelligence, charm and military talent to hold it together like Alexander." [Source Laura Geggel, Live Science February 10, 2015]

If one person had continued Alexander the Great’s empire, the history of the world would have changed, historians told Live Science. A magnetic leader with military brilliance could have invaded Sicily and Rome when Rome was heavily involved in fighting its rivals in the Samnite Wars, which spanned, though not continuously, from 343 B.C. to 290 B.C. A well-timed invasion would have given Alexander's successor an enormous advantage, and, if successful, could have prevented the Roman Empire from forming, said Kenneth Sacks, professor of history and classics at Brown University.

Without Rome, Europe would not have Roman technology, such as the aqueducts that carried water from distant sources to populated areas, and the use of concrete in harbors, which helped lead to the Renaissance, Sacks added. Yet, no such leader existed. "None of these field marshals seem to exhibit the same kind of great vision that Alexander exhibited," Sacks said. "Alexander had a vision of how to stabilize an empire, how to maintain an empire, and none of his successors really demonstrated that capacity."

Kingdoms after the break-up of Alexander the Great's Empire

Map World’s Religions Probably Different If Alexander’s Empire Endured

Laura Geggel wrote in Live Science: The continuation of Alexander's empire also would have changed modern-day maps. "If there's no Roman Empire, there's no Europe as we know it," Sacks said. "So who knows what happens to Europe. It's still not Christian in any sense, or if there is Christianity, it probably would not have spread to Europe. It would have probably been localized as one of these Christian sects in the Middle East, many of which died out." [Source Laura Geggel, Live Science February 10, 2015]

Such a giant Greek and Macedonian empire could have altered the religious history of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, Sacks said. It's possible that some Jews would have become more Hellenized than they are today under such an empire, as Greek culture had already influenced some Jews at the time, Sacks said. For example, Hellenized Jews tended to follow fewer dietary rules and may have tried to hide their circumcisions in the Greek gymnasium, where athletes competed in the nude, he added.

In contrast, Muslims might have become less Hellenized than they are today, because they may have not been as exposed to it, Sacks noted. For instance, the Byzantine emperor, Justinian I, persecuted Greek philosophers when he closed the Platonic Academy in Athens in A.D. 529. In response, the philosophers began moving east, away from the empire. Eventually, after Islam arose, many of the philosophers moved to Baghdad and strongly influenced Islamic thinkers with Neoplatonism, Sacks said.

And Christianity, without the backdrop of the Roman Empire, might not have spread to the West, Sacks said, explaining how the Church used the empire's protected roads and harbor systems to spread the gospel. Moreover, "the Church precisely copied the organizational pattern of the Roman Empire, assuring it control and stability," Sacks said. Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Greece sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Hellenistic World sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; BBC Ancient Greeks bbc.co.uk/history/; Canadian Museum of History, Perseus Project - Tufts University; perseus.tufts.edu ; MIT Classics Online classics.mit.edu ; Gutenberg.org, Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Live Science, Discover magazine, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, Encyclopædia Britannica, "The Discoverers" and "The Creators" by Daniel Boorstin. "Greek and Roman Life" by Ian Jenkins from the British Museum, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP and various books and other publications.

Last updated September 2024