Home | Category: Art and Architecture
ANCIENT GREEK PAINTING
painting of animal sacrifice from 6th century BC Corinth
Virtually no Greek paintings or murals have survived until the 20th century. Most of the what we know is based on written descriptions. The paintings that have survived are mostly those on vases that were made during the Archaic Age (750 B.C. to 500 B.C.) not during the Golden Age of Greece (457 B.C. to 430 B.C.).
Greeks used pigments mixed with hot wax to paint their warships. Later the Romans used this technique to make portraits. The Greeks also used paints made from precious stones, earth and plants. The Aristotelean beliefs that all colors were created by mixing black and white endured until the 17th century.
The ancient Mediterraneans obtained blue from a hermaphroditic snail with a gland that produces a fluid that becomes blue when exposed to air and light. The glands only produced the stuff when they were more male than female.
Subjects of ancient Greek paintings include snake-haired Medusas, centaurs, dancing girls, Olympic athletes and gods. A Greek tomb painting from the fifth century B.C. shows an athlete diving from one world to the next.
The Greek painter Zeuxis laughed so hard at one of his own paintings he broke a blood vessel and died.
Art Perspective in Ancient Greece
One of the great advancements of the Renaissance, linear perspective, was actually a rediscovery says Boorstin. In the fifth century B.C., Greek vase painters used "foreshortening" to illustrate depth and Agatharchus of Samos wrote in his book on perspective that "given a center in definite space, the line should naturally correspond with due regard to the point of sight and divergence of visual rays."
Plato however declared that artist who made something smaller simply because it was further away was reckless. Roman architect Viruvius defined scenography in the first century B.C. as "shading of the front and the retreating sides, and the correspondence of all lines to the vanishing point, which is the center of a circle." [Source: "The Creators" by Daniel Boorstin]
Ancient Greek Vase Paintings
Ajax and Achilles playing a game
The earliest ancient Greek vases were decorated with abstract designs and geometric figures (8th century B.C.). During the 7th century the human figures became larger and more life-like and by the 6th century Greek art had evolved into the classical vase art. Many were painted on kraters-ceramic pots that held about 48 liters and were used for mixing wine and water.
The first vessels with figures were made by Cornithian potters in the 7th century B.C. They featured black figures on the natural color of the pottery. The figures were black silhouette with a design scratched out with a needle. White and purple were painted on the black silhouette to highlight certain features. On the "red figure" vases of the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. the process was reversed with a few red silhouettes and a large black background on which the figures were painted instead of inscribed. The "red figure" style was invented around 530 B.C. by the Andokides Painter (so named because he was the favorite artist of the potter Andokides). The details of the bodies were often painted and rendered with skill but featured little or no perspective and depth.
Towards the end of the 6 th century B.C. the black-figure decorative approach was reversed. Previously the artist positioned his figures in black silhouette against the red clay colour of the pot. That meant that if he wanted to show details within the black figure the artist had to incise those i.e. scratch the design details into the black. Now, in the red-figure scheme, the figures are left in the natural colours of the clay. The artist then has the options f painting, doing a line drawing or incising. That enabled a much greater level of detail, allowed figures to be shown in the course of normal movements and permitted better efforts at achieving perspective. [Source: Canadian Museum of History |]
“During the transition period from black-figure to red-figure, a number of vases were painting using both techniques to illustrate the same scene. Some of these have survived and clearly demonstrate the advantages of the red-figure technique although black-figure paintings by masters such as Exekias remain superb examples of Greek imagery at its finest. |
“The majority of Greek vases shown in museums today are black-figure or red-figure but, in ancient times, there was significant production of all-black pots, devoid of any kind of figuring. There was also white-ground pottery where a slip of white clay was applied to a vase to act as a background for a line drawing. The white ground was fragile however and unsuitable for wares that were going to be handled a lot. It was however suitable for pottery, particularly the lekythos, used to hold ointments and oils intended for the use of the dead. These would be deposited in graves and so weren’t subjected to the handling of other kinds of pots. Scenes of mourning women seated at a tomb were typical for this kind of pottery.” |
Black-Figure Pottery
Early in the 7th century B.C. it was Corinth which was the political and commercial powerhouse of ancient Greece. Their leader was the tyrant Cypselus and under his leadership Corinth became the pottery export center of the Mediterranean. Corinthian potters invented a new technique of “painting” the vases which became known as “Black-Figure pottery”. It was a widely-sought commodity and in response to demand Corinth stepped up production. In the process, however, the quality fell and buyers clamoured for a better product. [Source: Canadian Museum of History |]
black figure pottery from Eleusis, 500 BC
“It was not long before the potters of Athens had mastered the Corinthian techniques. They also had the advantage of having ample clay beds with superior-quality clay which, when fired, turned an attractive pinkish-red. Soon their wares were being distributed all over the Aegean and even into North Africa, Asia, France, Spain and Crimea. The export of vases enabled Greece, a country with few exports, to be able to pay for the importation of badly-needed goods. |
“As was the case with Greek architecture and Greek sculpture, the Athenians excelled in attaining high standards for their ceramics. Functionality, guided by aesthetics and coupled with a penchant for quality control was the key. But it was the decoration that made Athenian pottery so renowned. |
“It is only in modern times that scholars have solved the mystery of what the black material is, in Black-Figure pottery. It comes from a highly purified clay containing iron oxides which, when fired in a particular three-step sequence, turns black. (In the first firing stage air is provided, in the second stage access to air is reduced and smoke is added and in the third stage air is one again allowed into the kiln.) |
Black- and Red-Figure Vase Painting Techniques
According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: “Between the beginning of the sixth and the end of the fourth centuries B.C., black- and red-figure techniques were used in Athens to decorate fine pottery while simpler, undecorated wares fulfilled everyday household purposes. With both techniques, the potter first shaped the vessel on a wheel. Most sizeable pots were made in sections; sometimes the neck and body were thrown separately, and the foot was often attached later. Once these sections had dried to a leather hardness, the potter assembled them and luted the joints with a slip (clay in a more liquid form). Lastly, he added the handles. In black-figure vase painting, figural and ornamental motifs were applied with a slip that turned black during firing, while the background was left the color of the clay. [Source: Department of Greek and Roman Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2002, metmuseum.org \^/]
red-figure stamnos (jar)
“Vase painters articulated individual forms by incising the slip or by adding white and purple enhancements (mixtures of pigment and clay). In contrast, the decorative motifs on red-figure vases remained the color of the clay; the background, filled in with a slip, turned black. Figures could be articulated with glaze lines or dilute washes of glaze applied with a brush. The red-figure technique was invented around 530 B.C., quite possibly by the potter Andokides and his workshop. It gradually replaced the black-figure technique as innovators recognized the possibilities that came with drawing forms, rather than laboriously delineating them with incisions. The use of a brush in red-figure technique was better suited to the naturalistic representation of anatomy, garments, and emotions. \^/
“The firing process of both red- and black-figure vessels consisted of three stages. During the first, oxidizing stage, air was allowed into the kiln, turning the whole vase the color of the clay. In the subsequent stage, green wood was introduced into the chamber and the oxygen supply was reduced, causing the object to turn black in the smoky environment. In the third stage, air was reintroduced into the kiln; the reserved portions turned back to orange while the glossed areas remained black. \^/
“Painted vases were often made in specific shapes for specific daily uses—storing and transporting wine and foodstuffs (amphora), drawing water (hydria), drinking wine or water (kantharos or kylix), and so on—and for special, often ritual occasions, such as pouring libations (lekythos) or carrying water for the bridal bath (loutrophoros). Their pictorial decorations provide insights into many aspects of Athenian life, and complement the literary texts and inscriptions from the Archaic and, especially, Classical periods.” \^/
Masterpieces of Ancient Greek Vase Painting
The value of these vases during Grecian times is showed in a painting with Athena giving a laurel wreath to a pair of potters, apparently the winners of a pottery competition. One of the most famous and beautifully preserved Greek vases show Hercules putting a lion into a head lock and grabbing his hind leg while Athena with her owl shield look on.
The Euphronious krater at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (the Met) is believed by to be the most beautiful ancient Greek vase in the world. Painted by Euphronious around 500 B.C., it features a scene from the “Iliad” painted with anatomical details, depth and emotion. Harvard art historian Gloria Pinney told National Geographic, "Euphronios and his circle of pioneers show a clear interests in musculatures. And in other respects — experimentation with perspective, depiction of fleeting gestures — there is a sense that red-figure artists were moving towards realism."
Euphronious is one of the few great Greek painters known by name. Only about two dozen works by him are known. The Euphronious krater contains his signatures and was described by Met director Thomas Hoving as “positively the finest work of art I’ve ever seen.” When the Met decided to pay $1 million for it, the move sent the message through the art world that big money could be earned by selling antiquities.
Scenes of Everyday Life Depicted on Ancient Greek Vases
Alabastron with courtship scene According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: “By the mid-sixth century B.C., craftsmen of the Athenian potters' quarter, known as the Kerameikos, had arrived at a fully developed style of black-figure vase painting. Many depicted scenes of hoplites putting on their armor, bidding farewell to loved ones, or advancing in phalanx formation. Most vases illustrated myths or heroic tales in which gods, goddesses, legendary heroes, and Amazons mingled with warriors in hoplite armor. These elegant battle scenes must have afforded great pleasure to an aristocratic class that embraced an ethos of military valor and athletic competition. [Source: Department of Greek and Roman Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2002, metmuseum.org \^/]
“In the years around 530 B.C., the red-figure technique was invented, quite possibly by the potter Andokides and his workshop. It gradually replaced the black-figure technique as innovators recognized the possibilities that came with drawing forms, rather than laboriously delineating them with incisions. The use of a brush was suited to the naturalistic representation of anatomy, garments, and emotions. As vase painters were able to represent the human body in increasingly complex poses, they more frequently depicted scenes of everyday life–athletics, drinking, and warfare–that allowed them to show off their mastery of the new medium. Apart from a few significant exceptions, these vases depicted an Athenian man's world. It was not until the middle of the fifth century B.C. that vase painters broadened their repertoire to include scenes of daily life that focused on women engaged in domestic activities. This innovation reflected not only decorative preferences, but also the uses to which the finest vases were put. \^/
“By the late fifth century, there was another distinct change in tone as vase painters opted to depict more poignant moments. Warriors arming or fighting were replaced by statuesque youths taking leave of their families, and scenes of music making associated with symposia earlier in the century were transformed into intimate depictions of several figures listening to a performer. Scenes of women performing domestic activities became particularly focused on wedding preparations and celebrations of the bride. “\^/
Time of Day on Painted Athenian Vases
According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: “The scenes of myth and daily life that decorate Athenian vases often have a pronounced sense of time, which is depicted in simple pictorial terms that are meant to be easily recognized. Night, for instance, can be signified with lamps, torches, and the presence of the appropriate nocturnal deities, Selene the moon goddess, and Nyx, the very personification of night. Similarly, Helios the sun god and Eos the goddess of dawn indicate daytime. The great frequency of temporal motifs on vases suggests that time was integral to the narrative construction of many vase paintings. Moreover, the deliberate references to time on Athenian vases can often be explained as an essential feature of the specific subject portrayed. [Source: Jennifer Udell, Bothmer Fellow, Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2004, metmuseum.org \^/]
“The degree to which a given subject requires a clear indication of time is best illustrated by the numerous depictions of the Attic wedding, in particular, vase paintings that show the procession of the married couple to their new home. In these scenes, the participants consistently carry torches because the nuptial procession was a nocturnal event. Torches in fact seem to be the only constant pictorial motif of this aspect of the wedding celebration. Their practical necessity to the procession, furthermore, is explained by the literary sources, which confirm the time of day of the nuptial march as it is depicted on vases. Homer, for example, in his description of the Shield of Achilles, writes that, "by the light of blazing torches they were leading the brides from their rooms throughout the city …" (Iliad 18.490–493). \^/
“Torches figure prominently in another subject treated by vase painters, the Return of Persephone, a myth that equates the arrival of spring with the notion of the young goddess' return to earth from the Underworld. Although the story is mythological, the torches, which place the scene at night, allude to the real-life propensity of the ancient Greeks to celebrate many of their most important seasonal festivals and religious rituals at night, a cultural practice well attested in the ancient literary sources. The ritualistic aspect of the Persephone myth lies in the fact that it is an allegory for the return of spring, which is itself a yearly (ritual) event. The torch and, by extension, the clear indication of night are therefore essential elements of the iconography of this subject in vase painting. \^/
Euphronious krater “Lamps appear regularly in vase paintings of nocturnal events that take place indoors. Subjects include the Greek symposium and other nighttime activities, such as a reveler calling on a hetaira(prostitute). The small, controlled flame of a lamp would have made them preferable to a burning torch for interior illumination. That lamps were the favored method of lighting the home is suggested by the great numbers of them excavated from domestic contexts, and by the ancient texts, which account for their use indoors. \^/
“There are many subjects in vase painting that (merely by virtue of the activity shown) can be said to take place during the day. Harvest and hunt scenes fall into this category. When a more deliberate reference to daylight hours is required, Helios and/or Eos will often be included. Both, for instance, preside over sacrifices in vase paintings. Their dual appearance visually confirms the actual ancient Greek practice of making sacrifices at daybreak, as attested by Hesiod, an eighth-century B.C. Greek poet, and Plutarch, a Greek writer from the first century A.D. When the daytime gods are present in a scene of a common daily ritual, it may signify that a particular myth is portrayed. A temporal consistency was thereby retained in the iconography of specific mythological subjects in vase painting, which reflected the time of day that specific activities took place in daily life. The relationship between the temporal specificity of certain aspects of life in ancient Greece and their treatment in Greek mythology is also evident in depictions of the story of Eos, the goddess of dawn, and Tithonos, a schoolboy. In mythology, the goddess takes Tithonos away to live with her. This was an abduction of opportunity, given that the school day started at daybreak in antiquity. The law stating that school began at sunrise is preserved in the legal code of Solon, a sixth-century B.C. Athenian statesman, and it demonstrates once more that elements of ancient Greek myth reflect certain aspects of ancient Greek life. \^/
“The importance of time as an underlying theme in Greek life is revealed through an examination of Greek vase painting and literature. While never overtly expressed in either medium, the prevalence of temporal allusions (both written and visual) speaks to the significance of time as a structuring and ordering force in Greek society. The consistency with which particular activities such as weddings, sacrifices, and religious rituals were depicted within a specific temporal context, moreover, supports the idea that many events were bound to certain times of day, and suggests that the clear indication of time was a significant component of the iconography of many subjects treated by vase painters. “ \^/
Painted Funerary Monuments from Hellenistic Alexandria
According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: “Although painting was one of the most celebrated arts of ancient Greece, extant original works of this fragile craft are extremely rare. A group of six painted limestone funerary monuments from Alexandria are exceptionally well preserved survivals of Greek painting from the fourth and third centuries B.C. These monuments—each in the form of a Greek stele with a large recessed painted panel—were discovered in 1884 in excavations of a large hypogeum tomb in the Ibrahimieh necropolis of Alexandria. Conventionally known as the Soldiers' Tomb due to the preponderance of monuments commemorating foreign mercenaries in the service of the Ptolemaic kingdom, this subterranean burial complex had a large central court open to the sky and multiple horizontal rows of narrow niches (loculi) cut into its walls for burials. Many of these niches were sealed with small painted slabs. The six painted funerary monuments in the Metropolitan Museum constitute the best-preserved examples of painting from this tomb and some of the finest extant painting from Alexandria in this period. [Source: Mark B. Abbe, Leon Levy Foundation Fellow, Sherman Fairchild Center for Objects Conservation, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, April 2007, metmuseum.org \^/]
Painted Funerary Monuments from Hellenistic Alexandria
“The focus of the painting on each monument is the deceased, who is identified by inscription. Two types of scenes generally predominate. The subject is represented either in a private domestic setting in intimate relation to family members, or in a more public presentation against a generic background with the attributes of his civic role emphasized. \^/
“Greek painters of the Classical and early Hellenistic periods developed revolutionary methods of representation that are fundamental to the Western pictorial tradition, such as three-dimensional perspective, the use of light and shade to render form, and trompe l'oeil realism. These stylistic developments were intimately related to Greek advances in the materials and techniques of painting. Few examples of the principal medium of ancient Greek painting—readily perishable whitened wooden panels (pinakes)—survive. Therefore our understanding of the technical innovations of Greek painters is largely derived from a limited number of paintings executed on stone supports that have been preserved in protected environments, such as the Soldiers' Tomb and the monumental Macedonian tombs of mainland Greece. Such works, though not the esteemed masterpieces on wood celebrated by ancient authors, provide invaluable direct evidence of Greek painting. \^/
“The painted funerary monuments from the Soldiers' Tomb reflect the highly developed technical sophistication of Greek painting methods of this period. The recessed picture panel of each was prepared with a lead white ground to create a flat, uniform, and brilliant white surface, a preparation technique undoubtedly transferred from contemporary wooden panel painting. An outline of the composition was incised in this ground layer and then delineated with extensive preparatory drawing using carbon black. The painting process involved building subtle color values and tones through overlapping applications of both pure colors and subtle mixtures of colors to maximum effect. Greek painters developed a wide variety of pigments and organic colorants to provide the technical means for representing the expressive ideas of their paintings. Many of these materials are evident in the painted monuments from the Soldiers' Tomb, which used both local and imported minerals, synthetic inorganic pigments, and organic dye stuffs precipitated on white clay. It is unclear if these paintings were executed in tempera, characterized by the use of an organic binding medium, or encaustic, a less well understood wax-based technique developed by Greek painters during this period. This and other important issues of ancient painting techniques are the subject of ongoing technical art historical research.
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons, The Louvre, The British Museum; Euphronious krater from New York Times; Alexandria funeral monument, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Text Sources: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Greece sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Hellenistic World sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; BBC Ancient Greeks bbc.co.uk/history/; Canadian Museum of History, Perseus Project - Tufts University; perseus.tufts.edu ; MIT Classics Online classics.mit.edu ; Gutenberg.org, Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Live Science, Discover magazine, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, Encyclopædia Britannica, "The Discoverers" and "The Creators" by Daniel Boorstin. "Greek and Roman Life" by Ian Jenkins from the British Museum, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP and various books and other publications.
Last updated September 2024